Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Social Inequalities: Causes and Consequences

The Industrial Revolution in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was a major cause of social inequalities. Key factors contributing to these disparities included:

• Establishment of factories and mass migration from the countryside to the city.
• Excessive working hours (14 to 16 hours).
• Low wages and inadequate housing.
• Lack of insurance and medical rights.

A new social class, the proletariat, reacted to these inequalities and injustices through strikes. As a result of this movement, the proletariat gained the right to association and trade unionism, although the working class remained exploited by the interests of capital.

Global Division Resulting from Industrialization

Due to the Industrial Revolution,... Continue reading "Social Inequality, the Proletariat, and Christian Social Action" »

Understanding Language Varieties

Language is a common code shared by speakers belonging to a community. Certain circumstances explain the appearance of different varieties within the same language. These are categorized into:

Diaphasic or Situational Varieties

These are related to the communicative situation and the individual style of the speaker. It is a variety of speech that gives rise to linguistic registers. The elements of a communicative situation are:

1. The personality of the sender-receiver
2. The communicative tension or degree of formality
3. The intentionality
4. The subject matter
5. Unilateral or bilateral interaction
6. The interaction space

There are two types of registers:

• Formal Register: Typical of cultural, scientific, and literary domains. The most

Workforce Planning & Talent Management

Workforce re-cultivation involves strategic internal investigation and planning to predict the labor force and human talent required for the realization of future organizational actions.

Strategic Workforce Planning

Strategic workforce planning aims to align human capital with organizational goals, ensuring the right talent is available when needed.

Key Workforce Planning Models

• Demand-based model: Estimates demand for products or services, accounting for productivity increases from technological changes.
• Substitution model: Focuses on replacing positions.
• Flow model: Characterizes the flow of people into and out of the organization.
• Integrated planning model: Considers planned workload volume, technological

Social Conflict as a Factor for Change

The Great Catalan Encyclopedia describes conflict as "a temporary imbalance in the cohesion of a social system, caused by dissident forces or elements which may be internal or external to it and seeking to restore a new equilibrium on new foundations."

The definition of conflict includes a wide range of social phenomena. Strikes and large and small popular demonstrations are forms of conflict, but these apparent disorders ultimately restore order. Thanks to social movements of protest, developed societies are stable systems. Conflict is an acute form of competition, as issues of aggression and defense are embedded within social conflict. In some cases, this activity is so institutionalized that there are... Continue reading "The Role of Social Conflict in Driving Societal Change" »

Key Aspects of Research Methodology

Characteristics of Research Objectives

Research objectives must be expressed clearly to avoid deviations in the research process. They should be attainable and consistent with each other and the overall study design.

Formulating Research Questions

The research problem should be posed as a direct question. Raising it directly offers the advantage of clarity, minimizing distortion in the research focus.

Justifying Your Research

All research must be justified with clear reasons. Most research is performed with a specific aim or purpose, investigating sufficiently. Research cannot be conducted on a whim; its appropriateness and benefits must be clearly explained.

Evaluating Research Potential

Research is undertaken for... Continue reading "Foundations of Research Design and Scientific Principles" »

The Hegelian and Marxian Dialectics

The Hegelian dialectic serves a complete and finished system of world history. Based on contradiction, it interprets and justifies the world, rather than transforming it. In contrast, the Marxian dialectic is open and unfinished, reflecting the incomplete nature of history and the real world. It aims to transform reality, not justify it, focusing on the contradictions within reality itself. Marx's dialectic is a dialectic of reality (the "subject"), not of ideas. It is a revolutionary dialectic of transformation.

Marx's Materialist Dialectic

Marx, a materialist, sought to synthesize Hegelian idealism with his materialism, creating dialectical materialism. His fundamental intuition is that history is simultaneously... Continue reading "Marxian and Hegelian Dialectics: A Materialist Interpretation of History" »

Factors Influencing Aging

The changes attributable to age are due to the interrelationship between functional and anatomical brain structures. These include:

• Changes in cognitive function (intelligence, memory, problem-solving, creativity).
• Changes in emotional state (loss of experience, motivation, personality).
• Social roles that society designates and that individuals must develop according to age. Certain roles conflict with chronological age.

It is important to distinguish between true aging and "fake aging." Fake aging refers to differences between young and old that are not motivated by deterioration over time but by factors such as:

• Effects of societal development
• Brainpower
• Culture
• Habits related to social attitudes of health maintenance

Theories

Societal Challenges in Advanced Societies

In the midst of economic progress, new problems emerge: expensive housing, unemployment, loneliness, individualism, violence, poverty, and social exclusion. Many excluded individuals live without economic resources, facing significant social problems and a lack of dignity and values.

In our advanced societies, a significant portion of the population lives in poverty, defined as living on less than 50% of the average Net Disposable Income (NDI). For instance, in Spain, this affects eight million people, or 20% of the population.

Vulnerable Groups and Societal Impact

These challenges are compounded for vulnerable groups, including:

• Children and youth
• The elderly
• Women
• Immigrants
• The disabled
• The homeless

A part... Continue reading "Societal Challenges and Sustainable Development for a Just Future" »

Key Linguistic Concepts

• Bilingualism: The routine use of two languages in the same region or by the same person.
• Semantic Field: A set of words related by meaning.
• Connotation: The set of values associated with a term.
• Denotation: The basic semantic features of a word, its core meaning.
• Diglossia: A type of bilingualism where languages have unequal social prestige.
• Statements: The minimum unit of communication, which can be a sentence or a phrase.
• Phonemes: Minimal linguistic units of meaning, representing mental images and sounds.
• Phonetics: The study of the physiological and acoustic aspects of speech sounds.
• Phonology: The study of how phonemes function to distinguish meanings, including intonation.
• Lexical Family: A set of words linked by a shared

Utopian Socialism

In the mid-nineteenth century, thinkers appeared who vindicated and defended the need to carry out social reforms to address resulting inequalities. They even proposed implementations in the production and distribution of wealth. Key figures included Saint-Simon and Fourier. However, the naivety and lack of scientific validity of their projects earned them criticism from Marxists, among others.

Anarchism

This is another philosophical and social current that demanded a radical transformation of society. The name means "without law or authority." Its principal ideologues, Bakunin and Proudhon, rejected all forms of power. They advocated the destruction of the State as the only way to achieve genuinely free, good, and supportive... Continue reading "19th-Century Social Theories: Utopian Socialism, Anarchism, Liberalism, and Materialism" »