Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party)

Founded by Pablo Iglesias in Madrid on May 2, 1879. Since its inception, the party aimed to unite the Spanish industrial proletariat under Marxist ideology, later evolving towards a social democratic orientation.

UGT (General Workers' Union)

Founded by Pablo Iglesias in Barcelona on August 12, 1888. This Spanish labor union also evolved from a Marxist to a social democratic orientation, similar to the PSOE.

Antonio Maura (1853-1925)

A prominent Spanish politician and lawyer, he served five times as President of the Council of Ministers of Spain and head of government. During his tenure, Maura was determined to end caciquismo (chieftaincy), encouraged Spain's relations with Britain and France, and initiated... Continue reading "Key Figures and Concepts in Modern Spanish History" »

Democracy: Core Principles and Policies

Democracy is a system where power belongs to all citizens. This power is not absolute but is limited by a Constitution, which, among other provisions, ensures the division of power and protects citizens' rights.

Access to political power is achieved through open and peaceful competition among a plurality of political forces. In a democratic regime, those who exercise power do so for a defined period. Citizens' rights are protected by the Constitution and laws.

The National Constitution

The National Constitution is a written document. It is considered rigid because its reform requires a special procedure, distinct from the common process for amending ordinary laws.

Objectives of the Constitution

The Constitution'... Continue reading "Democracy Fundamentals: Principles, Constitution, and Governance Models" »

Marx's Philosophy: A Scientific Interpretation of History

Marx's philosophy is intended as a scientific interpretation of human history, aiming to predict its future course. Marx argues that the proper way to interpret history is not by staying on the surface, focusing on anecdotes about rulers or the prevalent thoughts of each era. Instead, one must go directly to the motor of history, which, according to Marx, is the **economy** and the **production relations** among people.

The Motor of History: Class Struggle

For Marx, the motor of history is **class struggle**. Throughout time, different economic systems have emerged (slavery, feudalism, capitalism), each representing a different form of exploitation of one class by another. In each system,... Continue reading "Marxism: Understanding History and Class Struggle" »

Rousseau on Nature, Society, and Contract

According to Rousseau, men are naturally free and equal, possessing mercy, kindness, simplicity of life, and enjoy easy coexistence due to an abundance of goods. If men are seen in a state of struggle and inequality, it is attributed to society and its institutions, particularly private property. (Rousseau believed man is naturally good, but society corrupts him).

The only legitimate state operates under the rule of law, protecting all people and their property equally through a social contract. This contract ensures:

• Since all individuals surrender their rights equally, it prevents the creation of differences.
• It ensures no loss of personal freedom, maintaining equality.
• It guarantees the conditions necessary

Karl Marx's Theory of Alienation

Karl Marx's thesis on the alienation of humanity within capitalist society describes a condition he sought to expose and overcome. Alienation, in this context, signifies estrangement, humiliation, and even reification (the process of turning a person into a thing). From the perspective of historical materialism, work and production are fundamentally the primary sources of human self-realization and development. However, capitalism alienates the worker, thereby corrupting their activity, humiliating them, and reducing them to an object, a mere commodity. Through the worker's labor, the value of goods increases, creating an added value to the commodified object. Interestingly, alienation also impacts the capitalist,... Continue reading "Karl Marx's Theory of Alienation in Capitalism" »

• Electoral Systems

  Electoral systems exist in democratic regimes and are found in two forms: proportional and majority.

• Proportional: Characterized by the amount of power that is assumed in the governing bodies, which is proportional to the number of votes obtained in the elections.

Majority: Characterized by the desire to obtain the most votes, which grants all the power. When a party receives 50 + 1 votes, it secures 100% of the representation in Congress.

The proportional system is a fair system from the standpoint of political representation, but it is often seen as unfair compared to the majority system.

From the perspective of political representation, the proportional system helps create conditions that can lead to political instability due

Absolute, Liberal, and Socialist States

The Absolute State (16th-17th Centuries)

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, social and political problems and revolts from nobles, cities, and farmers increased the power of kings. Authoritarian monarchies evolved into absolute monarchies where kings held absolute power. These kings concentrated executive, legislative, and judicial functions. The absolute state was defined by the rule of law, applying to all its components.

The Liberal State

The liberal state centers on the individual. Its function is to create a legal framework enabling free action. Individuals possess inherent rights, prior to and more important than the state, which must respect these rights. The state creates laws to protect... Continue reading "Absolute, Liberal, Socialist, and Welfare States: A Comparative Analysis" »

Understanding the Concept of Text

The text is a sentence or a more or less long sequence of sentences ordered coherently and endowed with meaning. It is the maximum unit of communication.

A text elaborates on an idea or a number of ideas that the sender wants to transmit, and each idea is logically related to the others. The resources for this are links, syntactic matches, and semantic relationships.

Therefore, the two essential properties of a text are syntactic cohesion and semantic coherence. Cohesion can be defined as the interdependence between the elements of a text. It exists when each constituent of the text depends on others and cannot be understood without taking these into account.

Cohesion mechanisms are varied; the most important are:... Continue reading "Understanding Text: Definition, Properties, and Global Spanish" »

The Spanish Constitution of 1978

This document, of a legal and political nature, outlines a series of articles from the Spanish Constitution of 1978. It was drafted by the Constitutional Affairs Committee of the Congress of Deputies and published in December 1978.

Genesis of the Constitution

Following the composition of Parliament and its conversion to a bicameral system, Adolfo Suárez, then head of government, sought to transform the elected chamber for the transition into a constituent assembly. This crucial first step was decisive in creating the initial draft of the Constitution.

A committee was formed, comprising 36 deputies from various political associations. Within this, a subcommittee of seven individuals was tasked with approving the... Continue reading "Spanish Constitution of 1978: Foundations of Modern Democracy" »