Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Comparative Strategic Cultures

Elements of Johnston's Strategic Culture

According to Johnston (77), elements of strategic culture include:

1. Basic ideas about the strategic environment:
   • The role of war (norm or deviation)
   • Perceptions of the enemy and associated threats (zero-sum or variable-sum game)
   • The effectiveness of using force (ability to control outcomes, conditions for useful application)
2. Views on effective strategic responses to threats

American Strategic Culture: Roots and Influence

Religion played a crucial role in the formation of American consciousness. America was founded by the Puritans, who arrived in new lands with their system of values and ideals. They were characterized by an emphasis on individual protection, and the ideology of individualism,... Continue reading "National Strategic Cultures: A Comparative Analysis" »

The Philosophy of Science

1. Historical Conceptions of Science

Up until the Middle Ages, Aristotelian science was predominant. It stated that:

• There is no difference between science and philosophy
• Science involves finding explanations for things that we admire
• Science is the knowledge of essences
• It endeavors to find out the primary causes of all that is real

Modern science, which began with Copernicus and was furthered by Galileo, uses experimentation as a means for proof.

There are three fundamental consequences of understanding science in this way:

• A distinction is made between the experimental sciences and rational knowledge
• Science is only concerned with quantifiable properties
• Teleological explanations are rejected

2. Science: Elements and Classification

Scientific

India's Role in the UN Security Council

Peace, Prosperity, and Regional Economic Organizations

It is true that the peace and prosperity of countries lie in the establishment and strengthening of regional economic organizations. This statement is exemplified by the ASEAN Regional Forum and the European Union. The ASEAN Regional Forum is based on the notion of not escalating territorial disputes into armed confrontation.

• The ASEAN is rapidly growing into a very important regional organization. Its Vision 2020 has defined an outward-looking role in the international community. This builds on the existing ASEAN policy to encourage negotiations over conflicts in the region. Thus, ASEAN has mediated the end of the Cambodian conflicts, the East Timor

Functionalism

Functionalism views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.

Auguste Comte's Three Stages of Society

According to Auguste Comte, every society passes through three stages of development based on a consensus of ideas:

• Theological Stage: Society is explained through religion and the supernatural.
• Metaphysical Stage: This transitional stage challenges religious views with a focus on abstract philosophical ideas.
• Positive Stage: Society is understood through scientific observation, evidence, and laws.

The Four Functional Sub-Systems

Every social system consists of four functional sub-systems that address society's needs:

• Economic: Solves the problem of physical survival by producing and distributing

Economics: Understanding Choices and Resources

Economics is the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Economics is an undervalued subject that incorporates disciplines such as math and science. Many people hear the word "economics" and think it is all about money, but it is not. It is about choosing different options or alternatives, and some of those choices do not involve money, yet they are still a subject of economics. Economics is also about being efficient, not making foolish choices about how you spend time and money because sometimes we do not choose the best options. Plus, it allows individuals to think critically, so you can say that people do not know how the world truly works... Continue reading "Essential High School Subjects: Economics, Psychology, Languages" »

EU Institutions and Key Concepts

Commission (Jean-Claude Juncker): Key issues include conferral, subsidiarity, and proportionality, as well as policy proposals (right of initiative). The right to propose new laws requires support from 25% of Member States, subject to the Court of Justice of the EU. White papers are used for public debate. The Spitzenkandidat process is also significant.

Regulation harmonizes data protection legislation.

Council of the European Union

The Council represents the governments of the Member States, comprising 28 national ministers. Decisions are often made by qualified majority voting (55% qualified majority), with at least four countries needed to block decisions. Some decisions require unanimity, reflecting state sovereignty.... Continue reading "EU Institutions, Policies, and Single Market Dynamics" »

SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT

How does democracy come about? What are the factors to be considered when defining democracy? // There are 3 approaches to democracy: Modernization Theory, Historical Sociology and Transitology. These approaches can be eclectic (they can take things one from another) and to some extent they follow a chronological order and coexist today. The birth of one school doesn’t mean the death of the one before. Modernization Theory: This theory believes there is a relationship between economic development and democracy. The question is: is one the cause of the other? Some authors believe the greater the development, the more probable a society will sustain a democracy. There are 2 approaches: One related to marxism // Another one... Continue reading "Approaches to Democracy: Modernization Theory and Capitalism" »

American Camelot: The Kennedy Years (1960-1963)

The New Frontier Vision

On the occasion of his nomination at the 1960 Democratic Convention in Los Angeles, JFK delivered his famous:

JFK's "New Frontier" Speech

“[…] I stand here tonight facing west on what was once the last frontier. From the lands that stretch three thousand miles behind us, the pioneers gave up their safety, their comfort and sometimes their lives to build our new West. […] Some would say that those struggles are all over, that all the horizons have been explored, that all the battles have been won, that there is no longer an American frontier. But I trust that no one in this assemblage would agree with that sentiment; for the problems are not all solved and the battles

Treaty of Wedmore (878-890)

The Treaty of Wedmore followed Alfred's victory at the Battle of Edington. After the battle, the Viking leader Guthrum was baptized and became Alfred's adopted son. While Asser's biography refers to the Peace of Wedmore, the original document does not survive. The treaty below, however, does survive and dates from this period, although a firm date cannot be established. This peace was ordained and confirmed with oaths by King Alfred, King Guthrum, the Witan of all the English nation, and all the people in East Anglia, for themselves and their descendants, both living and unborn, who seek God's mercy or ours.

Futhorc: Anglo-Saxon Runes

Anglo-Saxon runes are runes used by the early Anglo-Saxons as an alphabet in their... Continue reading "Wedmore Treaty, Futhorc Runes, Bayeux Tapestry, Tok Pisin" »

The Creation of the USSR

In 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was created.

Political Organisation

The political organisation of the USSR put into practice Marxist ideas (communism) with the establishment of a proletariat dictatorship.

• Political power was held by the soviets, which had the power to make laws and choose the people who held executive power.
• The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) was the only political party, representing the interests of the workers.

Economy

Lenin was forced to postpone the implementation of socialism due to food shortages caused by the civil war. The New Economic Policy (NEP) allowed some capitalist systems. Peasants could sell their produce, and small private artisan shops were set up. The state... Continue reading "The Creation and Art of the USSR" »