Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

The Historical Impact of Latin on English Vocabulary

Latin Influence via Celtic Transmission

When the English migrated from the Continent to Britain in the mid-fifth century, they found the island already inhabited. Celtic people had been there for many centuries. Despite the long Roman occupation, the British Celts continued to speak their own language.

However, the relations between the Celts and the English were such that the Latin influence of this period remains the slightest of all influences that Old English owed to contact with Roman civilization.

The Christianization of Britain (597 AD)

The greatest influence of Latin upon Old English was occasioned by the reintroduction of Christianity into Britain in 597. The leader of this band was St....

Understanding the Fan: From Stereotype to Participatory Media Culture

Defining the Fan: Beyond Negative Connotations

To appropriately answer this question, one must first address the definition of ‘fan’. The term is an abbreviation of ‘fanatic’, which carries religious connotations, referring to devotees or those with secular faith. Historically, it has often been associated with negative societal perceptions.

Henry Jenkins and the Rejection of Fan Stereotypes

Henry Jenkins, an American media scholar and lecturer from the second half of the 20th century, extensively discusses various phenomena related to fans in his seminal book, Textual Poachers: Television Fans and Participatory Culture. Jenkins actively rejects common fan stereotypes,...

Fandoms: From Passive Consumers to Active Producers

Question 4: Fandoms (Henry Jenkins, Pierre Bourdieu...)

To appropriately answer this question, one must deal with the definition of 'fan'. The term is an abbreviation of 'fanatic' and comes from the Latin word 'fanaticus', which has religious connotations and refers to devotees. It has negative connotations in society. Henry Jenkins, an American media scholar and lecturer of the second half of the 20th century, deals with different phenomena related to the fan in his book Textual Poachers: Television Fans and Participatory Culture (1992). He rejects fan stereotypes such as the comic, nerdy fan, the psychotic fan, and the eroticized fan. Moreover, he expresses the fan as a defensible position...

Responsibility to Protect (R2P)

Origins and Objectives

The Responsibility to Protect (R2P) emerged as a global political commitment at the 2005 World Summit. Endorsed by UN members, its core objective is to prevent and halt genocides, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity. The impetus for R2P stemmed from the international community's failure to effectively respond to the 1994 Rwandan Genocide.

Three Pillars of R2P

1. Responsibility to Prevent: States must uphold fundamental principles against mass atrocity crimes, including genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity.
2. International Assistance and Capacity Building: The international community should provide assistance and support to states struggling to protect their populations.

Grammar Translation Method

• Based on translation.
• Study of literature in the target language (L2).
• Instruction in the native language (L1).
• Focus on reading and writing.
• Vocabulary taught through word lists.
• Sentence is the basic teaching unit.
• Grammar taught deductively: explanation followed by exercises.

Natural/Direct Method

• Emphasis on spoken language learning.
• Meaning acquired through context.
• Grammar learned inductively.

Advantages

• Classroom instruction in L2.
• Vocabulary through demonstrations (objects, pictures).
• Emphasis on correct pronunciation and grammar.
• Everyday vocabulary and sentences.
• Graded oral communication skills.

Disadvantages

• Requires teachers with high/native English proficiency.
• Time-consuming explanations in L2.

Audiolingual/Oral Approach

Principles

• Selection
• Gradation
• Situational

Absolute and Constitutional Monarchies

Characteristics of Absolute Monarchy

The King held absolute power over everybody. This power was justified by divine right, guaranteeing peace and stability for the realm.

Representative Example of Absolute Monarchy

The French Monarchy under **Louis XIV**.

Characteristics of Constitutional Monarchy

The King’s power was limited by courts and Parliament. This structure protected against the absolutist pretensions of the monarchy. Monarchs were selected by Parliament and their power was formalized by the acceptance of the **Bill of Rights**.

17th Century European Society and Economics

Population Trends in 17th Century Europe

The population of Europe decreased during the 17th century due to several factors:

• Poor harvests
• Wars

Theme 1: Matthew Arnold

Matthew Arnold was a famous literary critic, poet, and school inspector. His study of popular culture will focus mainly on culture and anarchy. Besides, he inaugurates a tradition, a particular way of seeing popular culture.

Popular culture is a culture that is widely favored or well-liked by many people. What is not high culture. It is seen as mass culture, an impoverished and devaluated form of culture. It is an “authentic” culture which originates from “the people” (folk culture) and finally, it is the practice of everyday.

His book Culture and Anarchy has had quite an influence on discussions about culture value. In the first chapter from his book, we can know what culture is. Firstly, culture can be related...

Rhetoric and Poetica

As a general concept, rhetoric refers to the art of speaking or writing correctly and elegantly to move, delight, or persuade. Different authors have defined it in various ways:

• Cockcroft: Art of persuasive speech
• Lopez Eyre: Art of properly using language
• Arist: Ability to achieve something
• Quintilian: Science to work and take care of the ability to speak
• Protagoras: Man as a measure of all things

The natural origin of rhetoric is legal and political. Its roots can be traced back to Syracuse in the 5th century BC when eloquence became necessary to persuade during land expropriation disputes. Rhetoric was the capacity for oratory, the art of persuading. The first discourse on this topic was written by Corax of Syracuse, but it...

Crinkly

(crujiente): wrinkled, making a rustling sound.

Ridges

(rugosos): raised land on a flat surface.

Cunningly

(astutamente): ability to achieve things in a clever way.

Hold

(resistir): to have or keep in the hand.

Concerned

(preocupado): interested or affected.

Tricks

(engañar): a clever action, as to solve a problem.

Brainchild

(invento): idea or invention that have thought up or created.

Trial

(juicio, prueba): a formal examination of evidence by a judge, typically before a jury, in order to decide guilt in a case of criminal or civil proceedings.

Arty

(pretencioso): making a strong, affected, or pretentious display of being artistic or interested in the arts.

Intended

planned or meant.

Negotiating

: obtain or bring about by discussion.

Folds

(plecs) bend...

Comparative Strategic Cultures

Elements of Johnston's Strategic Culture

According to Johnston (77), elements of strategic culture include:

1. Basic ideas about the strategic environment:
   • The role of war (norm or deviation)
   • Perceptions of the enemy and associated threats (zero-sum or variable-sum game)
   • The effectiveness of using force (ability to control outcomes, conditions for useful application)
2. Views on effective strategic responses to threats

American Strategic Culture: Roots and Influence

Religion played a crucial role in the formation of American consciousness. America was founded by the Puritans, who arrived in new lands with their system of values and ideals. They were characterized by an emphasis on individual protection, and the ideology of individualism,...