Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Mancur Olson's Theory of Collective Action

According to Mancur Olson, the significance of group dynamics in collective action is categorized into three main types:

• The Privileged Group: Each of its members, or at least one of them, has an incentive to see that the collective good is provided, even if they bear the full burden of providing it themselves.
• The Intermediate Group: No single member gets a share of the benefit large enough to incentivize them to provide the good alone. However, the group is small enough that others will notice whether any member is or is not helping to provide the collective good.
• The Latent Group: This is a very large group distinguished by the fact that if one member does or does not help provide the collective good,

Gender Inequality in the Modern Workplace

Gender inequality has long persisted in society, fostering sexist labels between men and women. Women face discrimination every day, particularly in the workplace, where they are often paid less than their male counterparts. Even when arguments are made that the gender wage gap is due to voluntary choices, data shows that women are 1.4 times more likely to receive critical subjective feedback in annual performance reviews than men. Furthermore, women often need to work longer to earn promotions, even after accounting for experience, hours worked, and education.

The Debate Over Voluntary Choices

Some argue that workplace discrimination is overrated, claiming that career disparities are the result of individual... Continue reading "Addressing Gender Inequality and Workplace Discrimination" »

Transcendentalism: An Overview

Transcendentalism emerged as a significant religious, philosophical, and literary movement in New England during the 1830s, reaching its peak in the 1840s and 1850s. Although key figures like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Amos Bronson Alcott lived well into the 1880s, the movement's initial energy declined around 1860.

Transcendentalism encompassed complex and often mystical ideas that defied easy categorization. Even within the movement, there were significant differences in focus and interpretation among its adherents.

Defining Transcendentalism

Henry David Thoreau, a prominent Transcendentalist, highlighted the difficulty of defining the movement in his journal entry on March 5, 1853. He noted that Transcendentalism... Continue reading "Understanding Transcendentalism: History, Beliefs, and Key Figures" »

September 2007: Arctic Sea Ice Decline

1a. ...the power of global warming from human-generated heat-trapping gases to shrink the cap of sea ice floating on the Arctic Ocean...

1b. For the new study, Dr. Stroeve reviewed nearly six decades of measurements by ships, airplanes, and satellites, estimating the maximum and minimum area of Arctic sea ice, which typically expands most in March and shrinks most in September.

Climate Research Findings

2a. True: A new study concluded that an open-water Arctic in summers could be more likely in this century than had been estimated in the latest international review of climate research released in February.

2b. False: The maximum area of Arctic sea ice, which typically expands most in March and shrinks most... Continue reading "Global Climate Trends and Modern Social Issues" »

This photo captures a battalion of thousands of Maori performing the Haka, a traditional dance used before entering battle. Initially, European wars held little interest for them as they seemed inconsequential to their lives. However, their perspective shifted during World War II. They saw participation as a political strategy to claim their independence. The Maori, part of New Zealand, sought respect alongside the Pakeha (non-Maori New Zealanders).

The Maori presence in New Zealand predates the arrival of European explorers, leading to numerous conflicts with white emigrants known as the Land Wars, which spanned many years. World War II presented an opportunity, despite Britain's distance, as they believed it would later benefit their pursuit... Continue reading "Maori Warriors: WWII, Haka, and the Fight for Equality" »

In general, there is a clear tendency for Romance languages—those that derive from Latin such as Spanish, Italian, French, or Portuguese—to clearly show gender agreement between the article, the noun, and the adjective. This is not as clear in Germanic languages like English or German. Such agreement is carried out through the addition of morphemes indicating gender and number (inflection).

On the contrary, English does not show gender agreement and, in order to express contrast between the feminine and the masculine, it resorts to lexical choice; that is, we find a different noun for each gender (a more analytical procedure). Such features could indicate that Romance languages tend to be more synthetic than Germanic ones. In spite of its... Continue reading "Gender Agreement in Romance and Germanic Languages" »

Political Philosophy and the Enlightenment

• Thomas Hobbes: English philosopher; social contract theory and equality in society.
• John Locke: Natural rights (Life, Liberty, Property).
• Voltaire: Advocate for freedom of religion and civil rights.
• Montesquieu: Separation of powers and checks and balances.
• Beccaria: Italian criminologist; opponent of torture.
• Montaigne: French writer; focused on the meaning of life through essays.

Economic Principles

• Adam Smith: Author of The Wealth of Nations.
• Self-Interest: Individuals working for their own benefit.
• Competition: Market force that improves product quality and pricing.
• Supply and Demand: High supply lowers prices; low supply raises prices.
• Capitalism: Economic system supporting a competitive business environment.

Contesting Cultures: Westernization (Uma Narayan)

Defining Third World Feminism

• A "Third World feminist" refers to anyone who has acquired feminist views and engages in feminist politics in Third World countries.
• It can also refer to any feminist concerned with Third World issues.
• Some feminists from communities of color identify themselves as Third World feminists.
• The author, Uma Narayan, identifies herself as one, as she is an Indian woman living in the US.
• Feminist ideals endorsed by Third World feminists are not necessarily adopted from Western cultures.

About the Author

Uma Narayan is a feminist scholar and professor of philosophy at Vassar College. She analyzes the relationship between Third World feminism and the West, defending it against... Continue reading "Uma Narayan: Third World Feminism & Westernization Critique" »

Discourse Analysis

The Study of Discourse

Discourse can be described as a form of verbal interaction encompassing three main dimensions: language use, communication of beliefs (cognition), and interaction in social situations. Discourse studies provide systematic descriptions of these dimensions and formulate theories explaining their relationships. These studies also examine the properties of text and talk within their respective contexts.

Challenges in Discourse Studies

• Ambiguity of the definition: Differentiating between the abstract and specific uses of "discourse" is crucial.
• Delimiting discourses sometimes requires theoretical notions and considerations of the communicative context.

Discourse as Social Action and Interaction

Discourse can... Continue reading "Discourse Analysis: Language, Cognition, and Society" »