Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Religion

The Four Noble Truths

1. Life inevitably involves pain and suffering.
2. The origin of suffering is desire, clinging to things and people, causing the suffering of loss or the pain of not having them.
3. Suffering and pain can be extinguished at their root by eliminating desire, the extinction of the self.
4. The **Eightfold Noble Path** leads to the cessation of suffering:

• Right Understanding (of the Four Noble Truths)
• Right Thought (willingness to reject hate and violence)
• Right Speech (to live without lying and without unnecessary words)
• Right Action (moral behavior)
• Right Livelihood (that your work does not hurt others)
• Right Effort (taking all the inner strength to take action and overcome negative instincts)
• Right Mindfulness (taking special care of things

Language Functions

Functions of language are not incompatible if mixed; talk of secondary functions.

1. Predominant and Representative Functions: Context focuses on the objective to convey information. Extralinguistics focuses on reality; its main feature is objectivity.
2. Expressive Function: Issuer-oriented, emphasizes feelings and attitude of the speaker. The message is above the transmission of the facts; the characteristic function is colloquial registration.
3. Appellative Function: Receiver-oriented, the intent is to influence the behavior of the receiver (call someone, ask questions, request, order, prohibit, counsel).
4. Phatic Function: Acts on the channel; the aim is to establish a communication channel or close it.
5. Metalinguistic Function: Focus

Yerma: Character Analysis

Secondary Characters

• Juan

  Yerma's husband. He is a strong man with few fixed ideas, dedicating most of his life to working in the fields. Unlike his wife, Juan does not want children. He desires a peaceful, quiet life and wants Yerma to always be at home, performing domestic duties while he works. He often makes disparaging comments about his wife.

• María

  A young friend of Yerma. She is a mother, which causes Yerma much sorrow as she longs for a child. They often discuss their relationships with their husbands. Initially, María was scared of having a son, but Yerma's support helped her overcome this fear.

• Víctor

  A friend of Juan. He is a cheerful man who always tries to encourage Yerma. On one occasion, Yerma collapsed

Verdaguer's Impact on Catalan Culture

What does it mean from a linguistic point of view? The value of the motherland lies in its dignity and refined poetic language, which affirms Catalan's potential as a cultural language during a time when this was questioned. It's important to remember that the Catalan language had endured centuries of restricted and inconsistent use.

Joaquin Rubio and Catalan Language Activism

What is the work undertaken by Joaquin Rubio and Ors? Ors is an activist for the Catalan language, poetry, and is a proactive figure in favor of what he calls independence.

Verdaguer: Priest and Poet

To what extent do the activities of priest and poet complement each other in Verdaguer? From the perspective of the Catholic sector in the... Continue reading "Verdaguer: Catalan Poetry, Religion, and Renaissance" »

The Stoic School of Ancient Philosophy

The Stoic School emerged in Athens around 300 BC. Its name derives from the Stoa Poikile (Painted Porch), a public colonnade in Athens where its members gathered. Its founder was Zeno of Citium.

Stoicism was not merely a school of thought; it was a comprehensive way of living and conceiving the world. Its profound influence extended across Greek and Roman cultures, shaping Western thought for centuries. Due to its enduring presence, the quality and variety of its representatives, and its significant impact, researchers typically divide Stoicism into three distinct periods:

Periods of Stoicism

• Early Stoa (3rd and 2nd centuries BC): Key figures include Zeno of Citium, Ariston of Chios, Cleanthes of Assos, and

Key Aspects of Feudalism

Characteristics of the Feudal System

Evident from the characteristics of the feudal system:

d) The institution of vassalage and its links.

Main Function in Defense

Its main function in defense was the feudal system.

d) The nobility.

The Investiture Controversy

Pope and the Investiture Dispute

b) Gregory VIII

Linguistically Homogeneous Groups

e) Germans

The Carolingian Empire and Border Marks

b) A border territory which was defended.

Relationship with the Church: Seeking New Realms

d) The evangelization of Germans.

Under Vassalage Relations

a) The feudal lord committed to giving protection.

Elements and Characteristics of Feudal Villages

b) Portion of the land given to their subjects by the lord.

First Germanic Kingdom to Convert to Christianity

c)

Gian Lorenzo Bernini: Biographical Aspects

Gian Lorenzo Bernini was an Italian Baroque sculptor and painter. A creator of monumental and decorative Baroque art, Bernini deployed his capabilities especially in architecture and sculpture. All his work was carried out in Rome, often serving the popes. Bernini used architecture as a sculptor, for expressionist purposes. His knowledge of classical architecture led him to prefer the use of porticos and columns crowned by a pediment. As an architect and sculptor, Bernini achieved a perfect relationship between the two arts in works such as the Baldacchino of St. Peter's and the Cornaro Chapel with The Ecstasy of St. Teresa.

Key Architectural Works

St. Peter's Square (1656-1667)

The colonnade of St. Peter'

The Soul's Pursuit of Happiness and Divine Union

Being the Sushumna body, it is made up by the soul, and the soul is also part of him and constitutes hope, longing, and delight. In regard to pleasure and delight, Augustine came to view them as the greater source of human action. When Saint Augustine seeks God, he seeks happiness and understands that, just as the body lives by the soul, the soul lives by full union with God. God is true happiness, for God is real and adds a softness greater than any pleasure. Sweet happiness is the last resting place, which is why it is understood as the immense good for which we sigh; it is the enjoyment of peace. This happiness was indeed supreme, but it could not be expressed by words; it was inwardly enjoyed... Continue reading "Augustine's Philosophy: Soul, Happiness, and Knowledge" »

Celestina: A Dramatic Analysis

Celestina: A dialogical work (without voice-over), dramatic in character, though probably not intended to be represented, but read out in 25 acts. It is also known as El alta. It is divided first by the other anonymous author, then written by Fernando de Rojas, a Toledan convert.

Structure

Approach: Act 1

Argument: Calisto loves Melibea and is rejected by her. He expresses despair to Sempronius, his servant, who suggests using an old bawd whose name was Celestina. Sempronius and Celestina, who is later joined by Parmeno—another servant of Callisto—are associated for the economic benefit of the young man.

Development: Acts II-XVIII

Argument: Celestina, through a spell and her ability to persuade, awakens love in... Continue reading "Celestina: A Dramatic Analysis of Characters and Structure" »

Vatican City: Baroque Art and Architecture

Key Elements of the Baroque Period

Vatican 1:

• a) Vatican, Rome (IT)
• b) Lorenzo Bernini
• c) Baroque Style
• d) 1656-67
• e) Lintel

2: Historical Context: This period is notable for the interplay between crisis and progress. Many problems arose: social conflict, stagnation in agriculture and industry, pestilence, and war. However, it was also a time when colonial empires emerged, helping to alleviate these crises.

B) Cultural Context: The art center during the 17th century was in Rome. During this period, there was a scientific breakthrough in opera.

C) Religious Context: Religion saw a reaffirmation of the principles of the Catholic Church. The papacy was strengthened, and the Jesuits were created to curb the Counter-... Continue reading "Vatican City: Baroque Art, Architecture, and Religious Influence" »