Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Religion

Seljuk Turks

A group who conquered Palestine in 1073 and began to persecute Christians who visited.

Second Crusade

The second crusade was an effort to retake Edessa and was a disaster. It was led by King Louis VII and Emperor Conrad III.

Third Crusade

Led by Richard the Lionhearted, Philip II, and Frederick Barbarossa.

Cathedra

The word for the bishop's chair.

Chancel

The word for the choir area.

Sic et Non

A famous work by Peter Abelard.

Summa Theologica

A 21-volume work by St. Thomas Aquinas.

St. Bonaventure

A saint who distrusted St. Thomas Aquinas's theological system.

Abbot Suger

The person who designed St. Denis Cathedral.

Trivium

Rhetoric, logic, and grammar.

Quadrivium

Arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music.

Chartres

The most outstanding example of Gothic... Continue reading "Key Figures and Events in Medieval History" »

Introduction to The Holy Innocents

The Holy Innocents completes a trilogy of rural narratives by Miguel Delibes, alongside The Road and The Rats. It is imbued with the love and emotional vehemence with which Delibes defends life in the countryside, a life free from contamination. Nature is depicted as a kind of Arcadia, threatened by progress. The action unfolds within this natural world.

It is said that the novel's landscape coincides with the Extremaduran countryside, where the flora and fauna are meticulously described. The rural men, resigned and content, live in perfect harmony with the earth. The farm owners, however, only visit for leisure or to oversee matters: Iván goes hunting with his influential friends, and the Marchioness and Miss... Continue reading "The Holy Innocents: Rural Life, Class, and Nature in Delibes' Novel" »

Ancient Indian Ritual Architecture: Temples and Yagya Kunds

Key Scriptures for Temple Architecture and Rituals

Two important scriptures that establish the principles for temple construction and associated rituals are:

• Āgama: A comprehensive collection of texts that lay down rules for worship, temple building (mandir nirman), spirituality, and specific rituals.
• Mayamata: A foundational architectural treatise (Vastu Shastra text) dealing with all aspects of dwelling places for gods and humans, covering everything from choosing the site to the iconography of temple walls.

The Significance and Science of Yagya Kunds

In the Vedic period, before the widespread construction of permanent temples, yajñas (sacrifices) were performed in specialized structures... Continue reading "Vedic Wisdom: Āgama, Mayamata, and the Science of Yagya Kunds" »

Rabindranath Tagore's Gitanjali: Song 36 Analysis

Stanza 1: Rising Above Daily Trifles

Poetic Lines

Give me the strength to raise my mind high above daily trifles.
And give me the strength to surrender my strength to Thy will with love.

Reference to the Context

These profound lines are taken from "Song 36" of Gitanjali, a celebrated collection of poems by the revered Indian dramatist, novelist, and poet, Rabindranath Tagore. This particular song encapsulates the poet's heartfelt prayer to God, expressing a desire for inner fortitude to navigate life's challenges and maintain mental equilibrium amidst all circumstances.

Explanation

In this stanza, the poet expresses a deep yearning for spiritual elevation. He implores God for the strength to cultivate... Continue reading "Rabindranath Tagore's Gitanjali Song 36: Spiritual Insights" »

Les Misérables: Key Plot Points and Character Arcs

Chapter 1: Release and the Bishop's Kindness

Jean Valjean is released from prison after serving 19 years for stealing bread. Marked as a dangerous ex-convict, he is rejected everywhere until he finds shelter at the bishop’s house, where he is treated with kindness and taught the value of redemption.

Chapter 2: The Act of Mercy and Javert's Pursuit

Valjean steals the bishop’s silver, but when caught, the bishop defends him, claiming it was a gift. This profound act of mercy sets Valjean on a path toward true redemption. Meanwhile, Inspector Javert begins searching for the escaped convict.

Chapter 3: Fantine and the Thénardiers

Fantine, a young mother, leaves her daughter Cosette with the cruel... Continue reading "The Epic Story of Les Misérables: Redemption and Revolution" »

The Rise of Feudalism (10th Century)

In the 10th century, feudalism emerged as the new way of structuring and governing society. This system was based on relationships of mutual dependence between social groups, involving rights and duties on both sides. It primarily involved two main relationships: vassalage and servitude.

The Weakening of Monarchs and the Birth of Vassalage

Between the 9th and 10th centuries, the Carolingian Empire was divided into kingdoms. This division weakened the monarchs, who frequently clashed. This unstable situation, coupled with invasions, fragmented Europe. Monarchs struggled to manage this insecurity; they lacked the means to collect taxes or maintain an army sufficient to protect the populace.

To govern and defend... Continue reading "Medieval Power Dynamics: Feudal Society and the Role of the Church" »

We must remember that when the division happened, most of the Muslims did not follow Ali; they followed Abu Bakr. During Ali's imamate in 656, the third Caliph Rashidun, the first Fitna war (656-661) occurred. It ended because Ali agreed to negotiate with his enemy to avoid the brutal civil war. However, this was seen as treason by some Shia extremists because they argued that power given by God could not be negotiated. Therefore, Ali was assassinated.

The Rise of Muawiya and Imam Hasan's Role

After the end of the first Fitna, Muawiya ruled as caliph from 661 to 680. Hasan, the second Imam (661-670), accepted Muawiya as caliph because he did not want to continue the war that opposed Sunni vs. Shia. However, Shia thought Hasan practiced Taqiyya... Continue reading "Shia Islam: History, Beliefs, and Practices" »

Renaissance Art: Innovations and Masters

Renaissance Sculpture: Characteristics and Key Artists

Classical reliefs and sculptures were collected and copied. The nude human figure became the most important element in art; classical proportions were based upon it, and even religious images of Christ and the saints were idealized within the norms of the human form.

Important sculptors include:

• In the Quattrocento:
  • Donatello: David and Condottiero Gattamelata
• In the Cinquecento:
  • Michelangelo: David, Moses, Pietà

Renaissance Painting: Techniques and Notable Figures

Artists strove to depict figures in a believable space—an illusion they created by using linear perspective, a Renaissance innovation. The human figure is well-proportioned without any hierarchical... Continue reading "Renaissance Artistry and the Protestant Reformation Era" »

Unit 3: Religious Reform and Spanish Hegemony

Corrupt Practices in the Church

• Indulgences were bought and sold.
• Clergy did not live humbly.
• Clergy did not honor their religious vows (for example: living with women, drinking, going to taverns) and they were not able to give proper spiritual guidance to their parishioners.
• They engaged in corrupt practices.

Impact of Indulgences on the Church's Spiritual Authority

Sins could be pardoned in exchange for money given to the Church. For Catholics, this was a way of becoming more spiritually and morally relaxed, as they no longer feared going to Hell.

The Protestant Reformation

Martin Luther then developed his own doctrine based on individual Christianity:

• Salvation through faith: In order to save your soul,

The Medieval Synthesis and Its Cracks