Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Advantages of Focus Groups

• Synergism: When a group of people with similar interests discuss an issue together, they are likely to produce a richer insight, wider range of information, and innovative ideas than will individual responses obtained privately.
• Snowballing: In a group discussion, one person’s comment often triggers a chain reaction from the other participants and generates more views.
• Stimulation: Once the focus group discussion is underway, the general level of excitement over the topic increases, and a large number of respondents want to express their ideas and expose their feelings.
• Security: Because of the homogeneity of composition, focus group participants have similar feelings. This enables them to feel comfortable and uninhibited

• Cognition: All mental activities associated with thinking, remembering, and communicating. We use concepts (mental group of similar objects, events, ideas, people. Ex: chairs mean many items. Prototypes mental image or best example of a category. Easy method to sorting items into categories. Ex: robin/bird.
• Strategies of Cognition: Algorithm (logical rule of procedure/step by step/guarantees a solution to a problem. Heuristic (simpler strategy/speedier than algorithm/more error-prone. Insight (not a strategy based, flash of inspiration, solves a problem.
• Obstacles of Cognition: Confirmation Bias: Peter Wason, predisposes to verify/search information that supports our perceptions and ignore or contradictory evidence. Mental Set: Fixation, prevent

Importance of Patterns:

1. People within a society relate in patterned ways.

2. A group is more than the sum of the individuals within the group.

3. People within a group behave differently than they would outside the group.

4. Groups encourage their members to behave in similar ways, or patterns, and to value these ways.

Sociological Perspective:

1. Focuses on groups rather than individuals.

2. It focuses on people at a group level.

Sociological Imagination:

1. Ability of individuals to see the relationship between events.

2. Look at our own society as outsiders.

Examine the role of two cultural dimensions on behaviour

Info:

Cultural Dimensions: are traits that are characteristic to certain cultures. The theorist of the Cultural Dimensions theory, Geert Hofstede, conducted a massive study across 50 countries over 10 years to test his theory. At the conclusion of his study, Hofstede observed four dimensions.

• Individualism-Collectivism - where the individual self is more important than societal connections
• Masculinity-Femininity - “masculinity focuses on achievement, heroism, assertiveness, material rewards for success; femininity focuses on cooperation, modesty, caring for the weaker and for a good quality of life”
• Power Distance - “the degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept and

Essential Qualities of Great Leadership

• Sincere enthusiasm: true enthusiasm for a business (its products and its mission cannot be faked
• Integrity: acknowledging mistakes, putting safety and quality first
• Great Communication Skills: motivate, instruct, and discipline
• Loyalty: reciprocal and in a position of service to team members
• Decisiveness: make decisions and take risks
• Managerial competence: not just being good at their jobs
• Empowerment: have faith in ability to train and develop employees
• Charisma: approachable, friendly, and caring for others

The Trap of the Charismatic Leader

Charisma only wins people's attention, but credibility is crucial. Use scientifically validated assessments instead of relying on intuition. Narcissists perform well in... Continue reading "Essential Qualities of Great Leadership and Conflict Management Skills" »

Sensation & Perception

Brain & Learning

Theories & Concepts

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) :

1- Alarm Phase: consists of perceiving a stressor, which then triggers the fight or flight response

2- Resistance: the resulting changes in your body are collectively referred to as the resistance phase. Also known as the adaption phase due to adapting to the new situation (Brain & Body) 3- Exhaustion Phase: the body starts to eventually become exhausted because it’s limited resources of dealing with stress. Damage to body more risk, medical problems.

Sleep:

The Naturally recurring experience during which normal consciousness is suspended, there are five different stages of sleep during the night, they cycle through the night Stage 1: Hypnogogic Sleep: The initial stage of sleep which lasts about 5 minutes... Continue reading "Understanding Stress, Sleep, and Health" »

Social Psychology: Attitudes, Prejudice, and Discrimination

Attitudes & Behavior: Attitudes affect interpretations of everyday events. An attitude is an overall evaluation of some aspects of the world.

Types of Attitudes

• Affective: Refers to your feelings about people, issues, and objects
• Behavioral: Refers to your predisposition to act in a particular way towards people, on an issue, or object
• Cognitive: Refers to what you believe or know about people, issues, or objects

Persuasion

Persuasion attempts to change people's attitudes in the hope of changing behavior. Attitudes can change based on experience or additional information. Persuasion can be achieved by two routes:

• Central: Paying close attention to the content of the argument
• Peripheral:

Selective Exposure

Dolf Zillmann provides a theoretical explanation of how people interact with the media. Persuasion in media has the power to convince people. Media has the power to change behavior, attitude, thinking, and emotions.

He wonders why entertainment is not being studied as an agent of mass media.

He points out two different areas: effects research/media effects, and audience research.

Theories are made on assumptions. Assumptions in social science disciplines are never tested. Soul, feelings, intelligence are nothing you can observe. Behaviorists study human behaviors. Around 1970, they understood that they should study not what media does to humans, but what humans do to media.

Communications is a result of sociology plus psychology.... Continue reading "Selective Exposure and Mood Management in Media" »

substitution:

nominal: one`s

verbal: do/does/doesn't/don't

clausal: so

ellipsis

nominal: both (kids)

verbal: have you… yes, I have.

clausal: is he? He didn't tell me

Conjunction (cohesion device)

Adversative: however, on the other hand

Additive: and

Temporal: first, then

Causal: because(reason)

lexical cohesion

reiteration: repetition, synonym, superordinate (illness,pneumonia), general word 

reference

anaphoric (before) 

“this” (ideas/facts) demonstrative

“that” (objects/people) personal

“these/those” (comparative)