Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Understanding Awareness and Consciousness

Awareness Defined

Awareness is the subjective experience of self-knowledge and reality. It is formed by experiences of the external world and internal mental and emotional experiences.

Altered States of Consciousness

Altered states of consciousness are natural and artificial events that modify our subjective experience. Consequences include:

• Abnormal thinking
• Loss of sense of time
• Loss of control
• Changes in the expression of emotions
• Perceptual disturbances and changes in body image
• Changes in meaning or significance
• Increased suggestibility

The Realm of Sleep and Dreams

The Nature of Dreams

A dream is a state of consciousness occurring during sleep. It is characterized by the individual typically adopting a particular... Continue reading "Consciousness, Sleep, and Learning Mechanisms Explained" »

Decision Making Definition

Decision making is a process in which one chooses between two or more alternatives.

Administrative Decision Making Process

• Planning
• Organization
• Direction
• Control

The Decision Making Process

1. Identify and analyze the problem
2. Identify and weigh criteria
3. Develop alternatives
4. Select the best alternative

Decision Making Environments

Certainty

Decisions or alternatives are evaluated based on the chance of achieving a greater benefit.

Risk

Inadequate information is available to know the consequences; the outcome is not guaranteed.

Uncertainty

Deficient information prevents control; situations arise where you cannot assign probabilities to outcomes.

Change Management and Strategic Models

These models modify employee behavior to ensure the organization... Continue reading "Effective Decision Making and Conflict Management Strategies" »

Understanding Socialization: Process and Definition

Socialization defines the process by which a person becomes socially responsible, learning and endorsing the standards and values of the society in which they live. Socialization presents two distinct aspects:

• The Visible Face: Describes how the individual acts within their culture, playing a decisive role.
• The Internal Face: A more psychological aspect, describing how the person internalizes and develops their own way of living.

This process is essentially the way we integrate into the culture we are in contact with, finding its way into our cognitive framework.

The Stages of Socialization

Primary Socialization

This is the most important and basic stage, occurring during childhood. It is primarily... Continue reading "Social Development Stages and Neurotransmitter Action" »

Understanding Manipulation & Influence

What is Manipulation?

Manipulation is an indirect form of social influence where one person affects another, aiming to change their belief, attitude, emotion, or behavior.

Defining Power

Power is the capacity to affect or influence the behavior of others.

Types of Manipulators and Their Victims

The Dictator

The Dictator is the manipulator par excellence. They dominate, order, cite arguments from authority, and use any means to subjugate their victims.

The Submissive (or "Little Thing")

The Submissive knows very well how to behave with the dictator: they exaggerate their susceptibility, forget things, listen, and remain silent.

The Calculator

The Calculator aims to control everything. They lie, hide data, and... Continue reading "Workplace Dynamics: Influence, Stress, and Burnout" »

Profile: Graphic Depictions

A profile provides graphic depictions of the results from a battery of tests or different individual tests.

Control List: Developmental Milestones

A control list refers to a set of tasks or minimal evidence of development expected at a given age.

Evaluating Motor Development

Why Evaluate Motor Development?

Motor development evaluation serves several key purposes:

• Determines an individual's current motor situation and tracks its evolution over time.
• Helps understand the processes that influence an individual's motor responses and how to intervene effectively.
• Enables the determination of appropriate interventions and provides feedback on the effectiveness of pedagogical actions.
• Assists individuals in understanding and diagnosing

... Continue reading "Comprehensive Motor Assessment: Tests, Criteria, and Instruments" »

Introduction to the Frankfurt School

The Institute for Social Research, the birthplace of the German Frankfurt School, was founded by Max Horkheimer. He was subsequently joined by Erich Fromm and Herbert Marcuse (who contributed concepts from Freudian psychoanalysis) and Theodor Adorno.

Origins and Exile (1922–1945)

After the Nazi Party came to power in Germany, the School was forced to relocate to the United States, finding refuge at Columbia University. Once in the United States, contact with the capitalist power par excellence decisively influenced the members of the School. This experience emphasized their criticism of the capitalist system, particularly concerning the alienation of the individual. The American stage of the Frankfurt School... Continue reading "The Frankfurt School: History, Exile, and the Foundations of Critical Theory" »

Philosophical Theories in Social Work Practice

Functionalism: Objectivity and System Balance

Functionalism asserts the existence of objectivity and a natural balance within systems. Within a set of elements, each serves a specific function. When an element fails, it is considered a pathology and requires correction.

Within this framework, social work is largely dominated by empiricism. This demands an objective and consistent interpretation of data. Furthermore, context and subjectivity are often rejected. The social worker, in this view, is subject to a central authority, focusing directly on problems and resolving them one by one as they arise. Consequently, the perception of context and user needs are often not taken into account.

Marxism: Conflict,

... Continue reading "Philosophical Foundations of Social Work Practice" »

Reliability and Validity in Selection

The quality of selection depends on using appropriate instruments. Predictors must be valid and reliable to successfully integrate employees.

Reliability

Reliability refers to the consistency of an instrument. It is used to ensure that the same results are obtained in successive applications under the same conditions.

• Test-Retest: Measures stability by comparing results over time. A higher coefficient indicates greater reliability.
• Internal Consistency: Measures the degree of homogeneity within the contents of the instrument.

Validity

Validity refers to the accuracy and precision of a measure.

Empirical Validity

• Concurrent: Determines the relationship between the predictor and the criterion at the same moment. It

... Continue reading "Reliability, Validity, and Employee Orientation Best Practices" »

Edwin Sutherland and the Theory of Differential Association

Sutherland was the creator of the concept of differential association and white-collar crime. Based on his research, criminal behavior is learned, thereby denying all sorts of biological or hereditary causes of deviation in its origin. He opposed positivism and racist tides that suggested race or intelligence resided in the lower capacity of criminal individuals.

The Origin and Process of Differential Association

Differential association is the origin and consequence of learning materialized through contacts with individuals who make up the most frequent groups with certain values and rules.

Nine Propositions of Sutherland's Theory

Sutherland summarized his theory into nine key propositions:... Continue reading "Edwin Sutherland: Differential Association and White-Collar Crime" »

Uniqueness and Giftedness: Bidirectional Concepts

Uniqueness is a term used to describe the characteristics of individuals who show high intellectual ability, as well as those with low capacity. Characteristics of uniqueness include:

• Low Frequency: It appears with low frequency. This includes a small number of defects in relation to the norm; similarly, the frequency of gifted and talented individuals is low within the normal population.
• Difference from the Norm: Exceptional individuals generally possess specific characteristics that differ from those of the normal population. These differences are of two types: quantitative (more or less frequent in their productions) and qualitative (distinct intellectual patterns, more or less elaborate products)

... Continue reading "Cognitive Strategies and Exceptionality in Education" »