Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Psychoanalysis

Created by Sigmund Freud, psychoanalysis seeks to study psychology from an "internal" point of view; that is, it explores the human unconscious as the cause of virtually all human behavior. Psychoanalysis is based on free association and has utilized various techniques such as:

• Hypnosis
• Rorschach test (inkblot test)
• Dream interpretation

Since the original formulation by Freud, there has been much controversy regarding psychoanalysis, even among psychoanalysts themselves. Of particular note is the later contribution of Jacques Lacan.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a discipline that studies psychology by referring to the human body as if it functioned like a machine. In this view, the body issues a response to a stimulus; for example, if... Continue reading "Core Perspectives and Schools of Psychology" »

Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism

Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's own culture is the center of the world, in the sense that all other cultures are classified according to their degree of approximation to the mainstream culture. Ethnocentrism has sometimes been presented as a scientific doctrine, as the Nazis attempted to establish rigorous biological criteria to distinguish different races. A graphic illustration of the critique of ethnocentrism is provided by the anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss when he says that "The savage is he who calls another savage."

Although ethnocentrism is a critical concept, not all human cultures are comparable because there are significant differences between their cultural traits. While no culture... Continue reading "Ethnocentrism and Cultural Evolution: Understanding Differences" »

The Nature of Psychotic Processes

The essence of any psychotic process is the loss of contact with reality by the individual and their spatiotemporal location. It is produced by a serious overall personality disorder, known as a psychotic state, whose effects are represented by a lack of mental control over perception or reasoning and an impairment in the directionality of behavior.

Classification of Psychosis

The causes of psychosis have informed their division into two primary groups:

1. Organic Psychosis: These are disorders resulting from irreversible injuries to the nervous system, whether as a result of disease processes, trauma, etc. This does not exclude the fact that, in some cases, a reversible process may occur when psychosis is treated

Cognitive psychology is a discipline that studies processes such as perception, memory, language, attention, and other processes involved in the handling of information by the subject.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget is known for his genetic theory of cognitive development, which proposes that children actively construct their understanding of the world through interaction.

Intelligence, according to Piaget, is the ability to maintain a constant adaptation of the subject's schemas to the world in which they operate.

Adaptation explains the development process of learning and is divided into two sub-processes:

• Assimilation: Integrating new information or experiences into existing schemas. For example, understanding a new concept

Jerome Bruner: Pedagogy as Assisted Development

Despite a possible translation error, we must analyze and evaluate Jerome Bruner's idea that pedagogy is an "assisted developmental psychology," based on academic discussion and bibliography.

Today, we recognize that Man is not simply an animal that reasons and speaks; he has developed a rational mind that other animals lack. His faculty of thought and the communication of concepts have introduced a completely new mechanism for the fundamental biological process of Evolution. Without this term, we would be unable to discuss human development comprehensively.

The Dual Evolution of Humanity

Thanks to science and research, we now know that man undergoes a Dual Evolution: one biological and the other... Continue reading "Jerome Bruner and the Theory of Assisted Pedagogy" »

Major Stages of Human Development

Developmental psychology is the scientific study of changes in the human individual from birth through old age. The developmental process is a continuous journey; significant changes in personality and psychological traits occur throughout distinct life stages, including adolescence, adulthood, and old age.

Key Theories of Psychological Development

• Sigmund Freud: Studied the evolution of sexuality in children and its impact on personality and social relations. He proposed that children move from primary narcissism to channeling sexual impulses toward others. Genital sexuality develops in two phases: the first from ages 1 to 4-5 (Oedipus complex) and the second during puberty following the latency period.
• Jean Piaget:

Understanding Heterosexuality

Heterosexuality is a sexual orientation characterized by sexual attraction, love, or sexual desire for people of the opposite sex. This contrasts with homosexuality and is usually distinguished from bisexuality.

Besides referring to sexual orientation, the term heterosexual also refers to sexual behavior between individuals of the opposite sex. Many animal species (those that engage in sexual reproduction and internal fertilization), including humans, reproduce through heterosexual sex. This is unlike hermaphroditic species, in which all individuals possess both sexes.

Homosexuality

Homosexuality (from the Greek ομος, homo, meaning 'equal', and the Latin sexus, meaning 'sex') is a sexual orientation defined... Continue reading "Understanding Heterosexuality and Related Sexual Practices" »

What is Research?

Research is the intentional search for knowledge or solutions to scientific problems. The scientific method shows the way to journey through that investigation, and the techniques needed provide a way to navigate it. It is characterized by being reflective, systematic, and methodical. It is developed through a process.

Importance of Research

Research becomes important because it helps to solve social problems, build new theories, etc.

Evaluating Research Importance

Here are three criteria for evaluating the potential importance of research:

• Convenience: How convenient is the research?
• Social Relevance: What is its importance to society? Who will benefit from the research results?
• Practical Implications: Does it solve real problems?

Faculties of Psychological Knowledge

Perception

Perception involves capturing external elements through the senses. The mechanism of perception follows this sequence: stimulus, touch, sensations, and brain (linguistic, motor, pathological). Attention focuses on a specific stimulus while diminishing others.

Memory

Memory encompasses capturing, storing, and reproducing information received through the senses or intuition. A memorization technique involves understanding, synthesizing, internalizing, and applying the information.

Imagination

Imagination involves capturing and saving ideas, but also altering and combining them, such as envisioning a giant mountain of gold. Without imagination, there would be neither science nor art.

Intelligence

Intelligence... Continue reading "Understanding Psychological Knowledge, Ethics, and Cognitive Development" »

Social Harmony and Disharmony

In humans, two opposing trends coexist: the inclination to live with and alongside others, but also the confrontation and opposition to others. Both phenomena are due to a rather special characteristic of human beings: in the words of Kant, their unsocial sociability. The human being is essentially sociable, needing and wanting the company and recognition of others; yet, on the other hand, lives in fear of being swallowed, hence the need for individuation. Closely related to this desire is the need for privacy and solitude.

These trends coexist in most societies in a balanced and stable manner. The tendency of every human being to assert individuality and, at times, to oppose others and society at large, contributes... Continue reading "Human Social Dynamics: Harmony, Conflict, and Socialization" »