Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

What is Reason?

Reason is the human capacity that allows us to understand ourselves and the world around us. It enables us to express this knowledge through language. Our language is primarily auditory, relying on our sense of hearing. However, reason depends on other capacities:

• Senses
• Memory
• Imagination
• Will

Emotions and Feelings

Every human being is an individual unit. All we know of reality is perceived through sentient intelligence and emotional affect. Through mutual recognition, we realize our participation in the world of intersubjectivity. True dialogue requires cordial reason.

Emotions: Our capacity to connect with others and integrate them into our lives generates feelings and emotions. These are generally pleasant, but can sometimes be... Continue reading "Understanding Human Reason and Emotions" »

Individual and Society: Tensions and Harmony

Tensions in the Individual-Society Relationship

Rejection

When the majority social group does not accept or recognize certain individuals as full members, it often leads to actions considered deviant from societal norms. Factors motivating social rejection include religious, cultural, and racial differences.

Self-Exclusion

The opposite of social rejection is self-exclusion. This tension arises when an individual does not identify with the community's parameters, feels dissatisfied with their surroundings, and ignores cultural norms. This can stem from incomplete family socialization, severe childhood trauma, or an abrupt societal change.

Marginalization

Resulting from social rejection and self-exclusion,... Continue reading "Individual and Society: Tensions, Harmony, and Human Behavior" »

Current Theories of the Century

Psychoneurological Theory:

This theory proposes studying cognitive processes and brain activity through sophisticated technologies, such as scanners and electroencephalograms. Its proponents are reductionists. The goal of this theory is to explain intelligence in scientific terms. Behind every thought, there is a biological correspondence, and this thought can be observed through science. Every intelligent behavior seeks to understand how intelligence manifests as a thought.

Information Processing Theory:

This theory uses information technology to explain how intelligence is produced. It suggests that we process information like a computer: we receive information, process it, and generate a response. It draws comparisons... Continue reading "Current Theories of the Century: Understanding Intelligence" »

Understanding Social & Emotional Development

Social Skills and Communication

• Social Skills: Support, confidence, positive self-image, proactive assertiveness.
• Communication: Active listening, empathy, openness, awareness.

Effective social behavior and communication, therefore, tend to decrease adjustment conflict.

Personal Boundaries and Self-Knowledge

• Personal Boundaries: Authenticity, validation, support, physical and emotional affection.
• Self-Knowledge and Expression Boundaries: Authenticity, assertiveness, detachment.

Emotional Reactions and Mental Health

Adjustment Reactions

• Motivated Reaction: A reversible, short-lived response to stressful circumstances and their underlying reasons.
• Brief Depressive Reaction: Transient depressive symptoms,

Understanding Intelligence

Intelligence, as described in cognitive perceptual learning, suggests that our behavior is increasingly sophisticated. It explains a part of everything. This perspective posits that it's not always necessary to present stimuli for intelligence to develop. Intelligence involves manipulating symbols abstractly. This is evident in science, technology, art, philosophy, and poetry.

Prominent definitions of intelligence include the work of Alfred Binet, which explains a person's IQ. IQ, calculated by dividing mental age by chronological age and multiplying by 100, doesn't fully represent intelligence. Wilhelm Stern and David Wechsler offered similar definitions, emphasizing intelligence as the operational capability to address... Continue reading "Understanding Intelligence: Cognitive Abilities and Beyond" »

Social psychology investigates how individuals interact and influence one another, how social relations are maintained, and how culture impacts these processes. Social influence is a change in a person's beliefs, attitudes, or conduct due to the action or presence of another person or group. This influence varies in form and effect. We can distinguish three types:

• Interpersonal Influence: Mutual influence occurring in small groups.
• Persuasion: When a communicator attempts to influence a particular audience.
• Media Influence: Characterized by a lack of direct contact between the transmitter and receiver.

According to Serge Moscovici, there are three different forms of social influence:

• Standardization: The interaction among group members leads them

Attachment Theory: Key Authors and Concepts

Key authors in attachment theory include John Bowlby, Mary Ainsworth, and Mary Main.

John Bowlby's Attachment Theory

Bowlby posited attachment as a fundamental human need, essential for survival yet relatively independent of other basic needs. Attachment is a biologically based motivational system that ensures an infant's proximity to a specific, preferred human being.

It is structured through interactive experiences, where communication precedes symbolic representation, evolving into affective contact. The attachment bond is directed towards a specific, differentiated, and preferred person. It seeks proximity and contact, generating anxiety when this desire is threatened.

The attachment system activates... Continue reading "Attachment Theory Explained: Bowlby, Ainsworth, Styles" »

Heredity and Environment

Individuals who do not conform to societal rules face sanctions. This document explores offender classifications and the psychological theories behind criminal behavior.

Classification of Offenders

Characterologic Types

Defined Offenders

• Mentally Ill
• Alcoholics
• Substance Abusers
• Feeble-minded

Undefined Offenders

• Casual
• Circumstantial

Biological Types - Inheritance

• Predominant Constitution (Anthropology)
• Influence of Surroundings

Psychiatry

Sigmund Freud, the Viennese founder of psychoanalysis, explored the human mind. He divided the mind into three areas:

• The Unconscious: Stores traumas, negative experiences, and parental influences.
• The Subconscious: Governs daily life and work, modulated by education.
• The Conscious: Handles everyday

The Pervasiveness of Interviews in Modern Society

Interviews have become deeply ingrained in our society, shaping how we gather information, conduct research, and interact with the world around us. From political polling to market research, educational assessments to healthcare consultations, interviews play a crucial role in understanding individuals' perspectives, experiences, and knowledge. Even the media utilizes interviews extensively, contributing to their widespread presence in popular culture.

The Qualitative Interview in Social Research

Within social research, the qualitative interview holds a prominent position, employed by both positivist (quantitative) and interpretive (qualitative) researchers. While their specific objectives may... Continue reading "Qualitative Interviews: A Deep Dive" »

What is Sociology? A Different Approach to Reality

Sociology is a different and unusual way to approach reality and ask questions about it. It forces us to think differently, questioning everything, even established truths. It provides tools and information that compel us to reflect on things we normally overlook.

Fundamental Rules of Sociological Inquiry

1. The way things are is not necessarily how I would like them to be.
2. Things are as they are, but they are not what they seem. "Appearances are deceptive."
3. The way things are might be different. Things are not eternal; they vary.

Core Principles of Sociology

1. What is defined as real has real consequences in social life.
2. We spend time putting labels on others ("The labels say more about the tagger than