Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia, meaning the fragmentation of cognitive and emotional capacities, was described by Breuler in 1911. It typically emerges in late adolescence or early adulthood, affecting individuals of both sexes.

Symptoms

• Social Isolation: Difficulty with interpersonal relationships, often leading to withdrawal.
• Thought Disruption: Fragmented and distorted thinking, often perceived as absurd by others.
• Disturbed Perceptions: Experiences of hallucinations, which can be auditory, visual, or kinesthetic.
• Inappropriate Emotions and Behavior: Living in an unrealistic world, experiencing detachment from one's body and personality, and exhibiting apathetic emotional responses.

Eating Disorders

Anorexia and bulimia are common eating disorders.... Continue reading "Mental Health and Well-being: Understanding and Addressing Challenges" »

Human Perception: Disorders and Mechanisms

Disorders of Perception

• Hallucinations: The perception of an object that does not exist, which the subject believes they see. These are misperceptions with no basis in reality. The subject cannot avoid them, and they become part of their life.
• Hallucinosis: The subject perceives an object that does not exist in reality but is able to recognize that it is not real.
• Pareidolia: The subject perceives distorted objects from reality through imagination. There are imaginative components in this pathology.
• Illusions: An object from reality is perceived in a distorted, garbled, or different way. These false perceptions are based on specific characteristics of the stimulus.
  • Geometric Illusions: Some aspects of a

Understanding Suicidal Behavior

Suicide is a complex issue with a range of behaviors and underlying factors. It's crucial to understand the different aspects of suicidal behavior to effectively identify and support individuals at risk.

Definitions:

• Suicide: An individual's death is intentional.
• Suicide Attempt: An attempt is made, but death does not occur.
• Suicidal Ideation: Thoughts or planning of suicide.
• Suicide Threat: Verbalizing the intention to kill oneself; this is a significant risk factor.
• Suicidal Gesture: Exhibiting some suicidal ideation.
• Passive Suicide: Displacement of responsibility, for example, a hunger strike.
• Attempted Suicide: Suicidal intent exists, but the method fails.
• Completed Suicide: Death is achieved.
• Extended or Mass Suicide:

Origins of Learning Disabilities

In 1963, Samuel Kirk defined a learning disability as "a delay or disorder in one or more processes of speech, language, writing, arithmetic, or other school areas resulting from a handicap caused by a possible cerebral dysfunction, conceptual, or emotional disturbance."

A 1988 definition used in the U.S. described it as a "general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual, assuming [they are] due to dysfunction of the central nervous system and can occur throughout the life cycle, but they can also increase."

According... Continue reading "Understanding Learning Disabilities: Origins and Features" »

Evaluation

Evaluation is the systematic process of determining the state of an object or the purpose of knowledge, information, and analysis. It involves gathering evidence to make informed judgments.

5 Stages of the Evaluation Process

1. Definition of the Object of Evaluation and Assessment Criteria (What to Assess): Identify the object or situation you want to evaluate and establish the evaluation criteria.
2. Evaluation Strategy Design (When and How): Develop a plan outlining who will conduct the evaluation, how it will be conducted, and when it will take place.
3. Information, Data, and Evidence Collection: Gather relevant data and conduct the necessary analysis.
4. Assessment Phase: Analyze the collected information to form judgments.
5. Conclusions of the

Learning Processes

Learning is the collective name for processes that produce changes in behavior. Between maturation and learning, there are several possibilities. Learning does not occur without maturation and development. There is no adaptation to the environment if there is maturation but no learning, and there is no development and no effect if there is no development. When there is maturation and learning, there is correct development and adaptation. The three forms of learning are classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. There are three schools that study learning: the American, Soviet, and European.

Theory of Learning Processes

Learning cannot be considered as a whole. There are different levels, from simple... Continue reading "Learning Processes and Motor Skills Development" »

Homeless Individuals: Definition and Characteristics

Homeless individuals are defined as isolated persons with minimal economic resources and work stoppage. They lack stable housing, have broken family ties, rely on social institutions for survival, and possess no personal resources to cope with their situation. Two key states characterize their condition:

1. Economic Deprivation: Places them at the lowest level of poverty, with begging as their primary income source. They often experience health deficiencies, including malnutrition and poor hygiene.
2. Relational Uprooting: Results in permanent unsociability, marked by an absence of friendships and only transient contacts focused on obtaining care.

Typologies of Homeless Individuals

The following typologies... Continue reading "Typology of Homeless Individuals" »

Russian Formalism: Foundations of Literary Theory

Russian Formalism designates an intellectual movement that marks the birth of literary theory and literary criticism as autonomous disciplines. It also significantly influenced the evolution of linguistic studies. From its outset, Russian Formalism encompassed a range of studies and theories that, while far from homogenous, shared a common approach: treating literature based on a specific object of study – "literariness."

Defining Literariness and Scientific Status

In defining "literariness" – the essential property of every literary work – Formalism sought to confer scientific status upon the study of literature. The movement was born during the First World War in pre-revolutionary Russia.... Continue reading "Russian Formalism: Defining Literary Study" »

Foundations of Psychology: Core Concepts

Psychology

The study of individuals' internal processes and the forces that occur within their physical and social environments.

Scientific Method

A set of ordered steps used to analyze and solve problems.

Behavior

Actions that help organisms adapt to an environment. This includes observable behaviors such as laughing, mourning, etc.

Mental Processes

The functioning of the human mind.

Psychologists

They focus largely on the behavior of individuals. Their goals include:

• Description: Sticking to observable information.
• Explanation: Understanding that observable behavior is influenced by a number of factors, such as internal genetic composition, motivation, intelligence, and self-esteem.
• Prediction: Making statements

1. Pearson Chi-Square Test

Variables

• X: Anxiety
• Y: Voltage

Hypotheses

• H0: Anxiety is not associated with stress.
• H1: Anxiety is associated with stress.

Results

• P-value: 0.0021
• Decision: There is insufficient evidence to conclude that anxiety is associated with stress, considering a 1% significance level.

2. Pearson Correlation Analysis

Variables

• X: Current Salary
• Y: Starting Salary

Hypotheses

• H0: Current Salary is not associated with starting salary.
• H1: Current Salary is associated with starting salary.

Results

• P-value: 0.000
• Decision: There is insufficient evidence to conclude a significant correlation between starting salary and current salary, considering a 1% significance level.

3. Levene's Test for Homogeneity of Variances

Variables

• X: Level of education group