Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Common Mental Disorders

Mental health problems are as varied and complex as the human brain itself. Among the most common disorders are anxiety, mood disorders, eating disorders like anorexia and bulimia, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Anxiety

Anxiety is an unpleasant emotional state that is often accompanied by physiological and behavioral changes similar to those caused by fear. Symptoms of anxiety are varied, including: nervousness, difficulty concentrating, and sleep disturbances.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

ADHD is characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Although usually diagnosed in childhood, it affects not only children, as in many cases it continues into adolescence and later stages... Continue reading "Understanding Mental Health Conditions and Brain Wellness" »

Definition of Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of human activity. It is considered a science because it attempts to approach its subject matter according to the requirements of scientific methodology (formulating hypotheses, comparing them, etc.). The study of human psychology includes the study of behavior (observable behavior such as movement, verbal behavior, nonverbal behavior, etc.), cognitive processes, and emotions.

Research in Psychology

The scientific study to which we referred above typically includes a series of stages:

• Formulation of the problem
• Formulating hypotheses or objectives
• Defining the variables
• Establishment of research design
• Execution of research design
• Obtaining results
• Data analysis
• Drawing conclusions

A final stage... Continue reading "Understanding Psychology: A Comprehensive Look at Its Branches and Applications" »

Culture and Socialization

Culture: When using the term "culture" in everyday conversation, it is generally considered equivalent to the higher aspects of the mind, like art, literature, music, and painting. Sociologists' use of the term includes such activities, but also others. Culture has to do with the lifestyles of members of a society or of groups within it. This includes dress, marriage customs and family life, work patterns, religious ceremonies, and pastimes.

"Culture" is conceptually distinct from "society," but there is a close relationship between both concepts. A society is a system of relationships that bind individuals. No culture could exist without society, but equally, there can be a society devoid of culture. Without culture,... Continue reading "Understanding Culture and Socialization in Society" »

Reinforcement: A consequence that increases the probability that a behavior will occur.

Escape Conditioning: Behavior is strengthened because it ends an unpleasant, present event.

Avoidance Conditioning: Behavior is strengthened because it postpones or prevents an objectionable event.

Punishment: A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur.

Social Learning Theory: Also known as imitation, this is learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates the behavior of another. It involves:

1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Motor Reproduction
4. Motivation or Incentive and Reinforcement

Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 Years)

During this stage, infants learn about themselves and their world through sensory development and motor activity.... Continue reading "Understanding Learning: Conditioning, Social Learning, and Cognitive Development" »

Socialization

Socialization is the process by which individuals within a society or culture learn and internalize a code of norms, values, and ways of perceiving reality. This provides them with the skills needed to function successfully in social interactions with other individuals.

Agents of Socialization

Primary Socialization

This is the first socialization that an individual goes through in childhood, and through it, they become a member of society. This occurs in the early years and primarily involves the family. It is characterized by a strong emotional charge. Primary socialization ends when the concept of the generalized other is established in the individual's conscience. At this point, the individual is an effective member of society.... Continue reading "Socialization and Social Groups: Understanding the Basics" »

Specific Methods

Axiomatic Method (Formal Sciences)

Responsible for forms (e.g., 2 + 2), consisting of symbols and conjunctions.

An axiom is a fundamental truth that cannot be doubted.

A theorem is a truth deduced through axioms.

Rules: Modes of operation.

Axiomatic System Characteristics:

• Independence: Cannot be inferred or proven from another axiom.
• Consistency: Deriving something and its opposite from an axiom is not possible. It must be demonstrated.
• Completeness or Decidability: Whether a statement is an axiom or a theorem; true or false.

Experimental Method

Based on experience and used as criteria to validate conclusions through experimental verification. Characterized by the degree of control that allows manipulation and treatment of situational... Continue reading "Exploring Scientific Methods: Axiomatic, Experimental, and More" »

Culture

Culture: All modes of life and habits, knowledge, and the level of artistic, scientific, and industrial development of a social group at a specific time.

Acculturation

Acculturation: The reception by a people or social group of cultural forms from another, leading to a more or less complete replacement of their own culture. Today, this is a very common phenomenon due to the technological development in telecommunications and the almost immediate and rapid exchange that has occurred in the era of the so-called (or misnomer) "global village." The term transculturation was coined in 1940 by the Cuban anthropologist Fernando Ortiz, intending to describe a process where one culture creatively incorporates elements from another, implying both... Continue reading "Cultural Dynamics and Forms of Violence Explained" »

Hominization and Humanization: Biological and Cultural Evolution

Defining Hominization and Humanization

The conjunction of anatomical and physiological changes that allowed the gradual evolution of early hominids to Homo Sapiens is known as the process of Hominization.

Parallel to these biological changes, major psychological, behavioral, and social changes occurred. This is what we call the process of Humanization.

These are two interdependent processes that influence one another. Hominization makes Humanization possible. We are human because our biological constitution evolved to enable a flexible brain capable of thought, speech, and planning. Biologically, we evolved primates. Culturally, we are very far from our origins. Thus, the leap is... Continue reading "Biological Evolution and Cultural Development: Understanding Humanization" »

The Foundations of Freudian Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud is the founder of one of the most popular streams in psychology: psychoanalysis. The idea of transforming psychological studies resulted from his direct contact with clinical cases of neurotic patients. Freud changed the way we understand patients' problems and their methodology, focusing on their experiences and taking what they told him about their inner world, dreams, and fantasies as a reference. Freud's draft of a metapsychological psychology aimed to scientifically address transcendent aspects of human beings, such as morality or religion.

The psychoanalytic paradigm was initially based on the thermodynamic models of the physics of his time. Thus, the human mind was compared to a... Continue reading "Freudian Psychoanalysis: The Unconscious, Libido, and Repression" »

Integrative Theoretical Models of Crime

The Theory of Stress, Social Control, and Social Learning

These authors propose two paths that may lead to criminal behavior. The first, and likely the most common, begins with a weak link to conventional society. This is coupled with negative experiences that foster proximity to and involvement with groups engaged in criminal activity. The second path starts with a strong link to conventional society, but this link is weakened by various experiences and failures in achieving socially prescribed goals. These experiences may include limited opportunities, negative labeling, and conflicts within the family or community. Consequently, this leads to contact with and joining groups of offenders.

Links or controls... Continue reading "Understanding Crime: Factors, Theories, and Trends in Spain" »