Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

The Need for Culture in Human Beings

The closed world of animals contrasts with the open world of human beings. While animals are governed by instincts to solve particular problems within their habitat, humans barely retain any instincts. Humans must invent strategies to solve problems in today's world.

Humans are not born with instincts or culture, but with the ability to acquire them. This is because, during evolution, the pelvis of women became narrower, and the heads of offspring grew increasingly larger. This resulted in offspring being born at an earlier neural stage and therefore, less developed. However, in exchange for instincts at birth, humans have an ability to learn and be educated, to solve their problems with the knowledge they... Continue reading "Human Culture and Socialization: Language and Thought" »

Sociology as a Science

Sociology is the scientific study of society, social relations, and the functioning of social structures, groups, institutions, and social actions.

Principles of the Marxist Paradigm

1. Law of Universal Interaction: Everything is interconnected, and society consists of interrelated elements.
2. Law of Contrary Unity: Everything is in constant transformation and conflict, generating permanent investigation into social phenomena within their context.
3. Law of Spiral Development: The new integrates and perfects the old without destroying it, leading to continuous development.

Difficulties in Studying and Delimiting the Object of Sociology

1. Reflexivity: We are both the subject and object of study, making it challenging to maintain objectivity.

Thought: A Comprehensive Exploration

Definition of Thought

Thought is the psychic process by which representations of abstract objects, phenomena, or events of reality are formed in the form of concepts, judgments, and reasoning.

Key Concepts

• Image: Virtual representations formed by all human beings from conception, relating to the rational, subjective, and inner processes of knowing, understanding, judging, and reasoning about objectives and actions.
• Language: The function of expressing thought in written form for communication and understanding between human beings.
• Thought: A rational, objective, and external psychological phenomenon derived from thinking to solve everyday problems.

The thought process is a means of planning and action to overcome... Continue reading "Understanding Thought Processes and Their Significance" »

Memory: Transformations Over Time

Memory refers to the transformations that occur in information over time. From the multi-store model, it is understood that memory is a complex and active system working with multiple interconnected components.

• Recording Information: Information is perceived and encoded.
• Storing Information: The encoded information is stored using multifunctional matrices selected by the individual.
• Retrieving Information: Information is retrieved from memory based on the store in which it was processed.

Three Systems of Information Fixation

1. Sensory Memory

   Information in sensory memory disappears within approximately one second.

2. Short-Term Memory

   Information in short-term memory fades within approximately 20 seconds.

3. Long-Term Memory

   Information

Sensation vs. Perception

1. What is the difference between sensation and perception?

Sensation occurs when a sense organ detects a concrete stimulus. Perception occurs when the brain integrates these stimuli, making the individual aware of the sensation. Perception is the processing of information from stimuli.

Sensory Integration

2. Summarize sensory integration.

Sensory integration is the process of combining information from the senses to create meaning. This is essential for a child to understand the world.

Parker's Conclusions

3. What is Parker's (1991) conclusion regarding perception, sensation, and attention?

Parker asserts that perception, sensation, and attention are sufficiently developed at birth to enable interaction between mother and... Continue reading "Sensation, Perception, and Cognitive Development: Key Concepts" »

UK Family Structure and Characteristics

• Monogamy and Serial Monogamy: The British are monogamous and practice serial monogamy, meaning one can have no more than one consecutive spouse or one husband/wife at a time.
• Romantic Love Basis: The family is based on the idea of romantic love in Britain, which has become naturalized (considered normal).
• Patrilineal and Neolocal: Families are typically patrilineal (the father passes the surname to children) and neolocal (the married couple moves to a detached house away from their two families). (Contrast with Matrilineal: surname by female line; Matrilocal: near the bride's parents; Patrilocal: near the groom's parents or father's home).

Family Model Evolution and Diversity

Family models show evolution and... Continue reading "UK Family Structure and Social Dynamics" »

Humanity's Unique Nature

Instead of dealing with the world directly, humans are, in a sense, in constant conversation with themselves. This means that whatever we do is mediated by our culture, especially through language.

Are Humans Cultural Animals?

When we speak of culture, we do not mean a person's general education or acquired knowledge. Instead, we refer to all the resources, technologies, and patterns of behavior unique to a society, including its beliefs, values, customs, symbols, and traditions. In this sense, humans are the only truly cultural species.

Five Characteristics of Human Biology

Key biological traits that define humans include:

• Cranial capacity
• Intelligence quotient (IQ)
• Sex (male or female)
• Eye color
• Skin color

Evolution and Language

Evolution

Understanding Socialization: Human Development

Definition of Socialization

Socialization is the fundamental process by which individuals integrate into a community and become active participants. It involves the acquisition and internalization of rules, principles, and customs of the culture in which we live. This assimilation allows us to identify with our group and feel like true members. Through socialization, we gain essential knowledge about those around us and experience the emotional bonds necessary for a rich and fulfilling life.

Our culture and personality are shaped solely through socialization. Thanks to this process, we enjoy a common ground that unites us, greatly fostering our capacity for empathy and the ability to feel understood... Continue reading "The Essence of Socialization: Human Development & Integration" »

A paranoid personality is one in which behavior patterns are characterized by unwarranted suspicion, tenderness, jealousy, envy, and a general tendency to blame and ascribe evil intentions to others. This often results in significant difficulty maintaining satisfactory interpersonal relationships.

Cyclothymic and Schizoid Patterns

The cyclothymic personality involves behavior patterns characterized by alternating periods of euphoria—marked by optimism, ambition, energy, and enthusiasm—and depression (worry and discouragement). These moods are not attributable to external circumstances.

Schizoid behavior patterns are characterized by reservation, isolation, and the avoidance of intimate relationships or competitive situations. They may involve... Continue reading "Common Personality Disorders and Behavioral Traits" »

Solemn Issues in Child Development

1. Causes of Birth Trauma

• Delay in the acquisition of reading
• Difficulty in perceptual skills
• Awkwardness in social skills

2. Children's Thinking is Linked to:

• The real
• Present
• Concrete

3. Stages Considered in Subjective Processing

The subject takes into account earlier and future stages in:

• The stage of concrete operations

4. Language Acquisition in Children

• Vicarious learning

5. Symbols as a Product of:

• The integration of functions and capabilities
• Imitation skills
• Competition
• Ability to analyze and attractiveness of the properties of the targets.

6. The Principle of Transitivity

• Understanding the relationship between two objects
• Knowing the relationship of these to a third object

7. Organized Internalized Mental Actions

• Operation

8.