Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

The Superego: The Moral Compass of Personality

The superego represents the judicial branch or moral component of personality. It embodies societal standards and cultural values that individuals internalize. Internalization means integrating external values into one's own personality. The superego comprises two subsystems: the ego ideal and conscience.

Ego Ideal and Conscience

The ego ideal encompasses goals, objectives, and all positively valued behaviors deemed morally acceptable. Conscience, conversely, refers to everything negatively evaluated or rejected.

The superego operates both unconsciously and consciously, potentially causing anxiety and guilt.

The superego dictates what *not* to do, often without providing explanations. This is similar... Continue reading "Understanding the Id, Ego, and Superego in Psychology" »

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological Needs

These fundamental needs include air, water, food, sleep, rest, elimination of waste, avoidance of pain, and sexuality. They are individual and somatic (bodily), making them distinct from other needs. They are also relatively independent of one another and are the first needs that humans strive to satisfy.

Safety Needs

Once physiological needs are met, the focus shifts to safety, protection, and stability. This involves addressing fears and anxieties. Children, with less control over their environment, are particularly vulnerable and require a safe and supportive environment to develop confidence and protect them from negative experiences.

Love and Belonging Needs (Social Needs)

After physiological... Continue reading "Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and Personal Identity Development" »

Direct Observation in Social Research

Introduction

Direct observation is a crucial data collection technique in social research, providing insights into the socio-cultural realities of communities and social groups. It involves observing and recording behaviors and events within a specific context.

What is Direct Observation?

Direct observation involves one or more researchers watching and recording events as they unfold in a natural setting. From a social research perspective, it's a method of gathering information using the senses to perceive and document social realities and behaviors within the context where they naturally occur (physical and cultural-social environment).

Two key characteristics of effective direct observation are:

• Intentional:

Understanding Conflict

A conflict is a situation of confrontation between people who have different ideas regarding a particular issue. A conflict differs from a dilemma. A conflict involves a disagreement between individuals or groups, while a dilemma involves a difficult personal decision.

Common Causes of Labor Disputes

• Causes arising in relations between individuals, groups, or organizations:
  • Unclear distribution of work
  • Differences in income or desires
  • Differences in values and beliefs
  • Personal confrontations
• Causes related to decision-making:
  • Need to make a difficult decision

Types of Conflict

By Number of People Affected

• Individual: Conflict between two people.
• Collective: Conflict between a group of employees and the company.

By Subject Matter

• Legal:

Challenges in Interviewing Marginalized Groups

A clear case involves particularly marginalized groups: criminals, prostitutes, drug addicts, people with stigmatized diseases, people experiencing homelessness, etc. Even when the researcher has some notion about certain places where they can locate some of these potential respondents, they must not forget the high degree of volatility or mobility of these groups. If we can establish a good relationship with any of them, we may be on the right track. Through their influence, we can get new elements for our sample. This is known as the "snowball effect." The first interviewees give us information that will permit the location of other individuals likely to swell our "sample." And these, in turn,... Continue reading "In-Depth Interviews: Advantages, Disadvantages, and Best Practices" »

Evolutionary Psychology and Adolescent Development

Evolutionary psychology deals with the psychological changes that occur during life and analyzes how the human being passes through several stages to adulthood.

Objectives of Adolescence

1. Develop cognitive and emotional characteristics (abstract thought and self-awareness).
2. Build a personal identity.
3. Acquire social skills.

Youth Culture Characteristics

1. New forms of communication.
2. Individualization.
3. Body image assessment.
4. Cult of image.
5. Sensitivity.
6. Consumerism.
7. Nomadism.

Features of Formal Thought

1. Openness to the world.
2. Logical thinking.
3. Possibility of hypothetico-deductive thinking.
4. Egocentric thinking.

Beliefs and Irrational Thoughts

Beliefs are useful illusions that allow us to manage our experiences. Irrational... Continue reading "Understanding Adolescent Psychology: Key Stages & Characteristics" »

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia, meaning the fragmentation of cognitive and emotional capacities, was described by Breuler in 1911. It typically emerges in late adolescence or early adulthood, affecting individuals of both sexes.

Symptoms

• Social Isolation: Difficulty with interpersonal relationships, often leading to withdrawal.
• Thought Disruption: Fragmented and distorted thinking, often perceived as absurd by others.
• Disturbed Perceptions: Experiences of hallucinations, which can be auditory, visual, or kinesthetic.
• Inappropriate Emotions and Behavior: Living in an unrealistic world, experiencing detachment from one's body and personality, and exhibiting apathetic emotional responses.

Eating Disorders

Anorexia and bulimia are common eating disorders.... Continue reading "Mental Health and Well-being: Understanding and Addressing Challenges" »

Understanding Suicidal Behavior

Suicide is a complex issue with a range of behaviors and underlying factors. It's crucial to understand the different aspects of suicidal behavior to effectively identify and support individuals at risk.

Definitions:

• Suicide: An individual's death is intentional.
• Suicide Attempt: An attempt is made, but death does not occur.
• Suicidal Ideation: Thoughts or planning of suicide.
• Suicide Threat: Verbalizing the intention to kill oneself; this is a significant risk factor.
• Suicidal Gesture: Exhibiting some suicidal ideation.
• Passive Suicide: Displacement of responsibility, for example, a hunger strike.
• Attempted Suicide: Suicidal intent exists, but the method fails.
• Completed Suicide: Death is achieved.
• Extended or Mass Suicide:

Origins of Learning Disabilities

In 1963, Samuel Kirk defined a learning disability as "a delay or disorder in one or more processes of speech, language, writing, arithmetic, or other school areas resulting from a handicap caused by a possible cerebral dysfunction, conceptual, or emotional disturbance."

A 1988 definition used in the U.S. described it as a "general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual, assuming [they are] due to dysfunction of the central nervous system and can occur throughout the life cycle, but they can also increase."

According... Continue reading "Understanding Learning Disabilities: Origins and Features" »

Evaluation

Evaluation is the systematic process of determining the state of an object or the purpose of knowledge, information, and analysis. It involves gathering evidence to make informed judgments.

5 Stages of the Evaluation Process

1. Definition of the Object of Evaluation and Assessment Criteria (What to Assess): Identify the object or situation you want to evaluate and establish the evaluation criteria.
2. Evaluation Strategy Design (When and How): Develop a plan outlining who will conduct the evaluation, how it will be conducted, and when it will take place.
3. Information, Data, and Evidence Collection: Gather relevant data and conduct the necessary analysis.
4. Assessment Phase: Analyze the collected information to form judgments.
5. Conclusions of the