Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Short-Term Memory

Short-term memory is the center of consciousness, encompassing all thoughts, experiences, or information within a given period. Its duration is typically 15 to 20 seconds, or a maximum of 30 seconds. After this period, information is lost if not consolidated.

Information must be consolidated from short-term memory to long-term memory. Conversely, retrieving information from long-term memory requires transferring it back to short-term memory for use.

Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory is the lifelong repository of all the information we accumulate. Due to its unlimited capacity and duration, it is the richest and most complex memory structure, but also the most challenging to investigate.

While short-term memory is based on the physical... Continue reading "Understanding Memory: Short-Term, Long-Term, and Disorders" »

Philosophy of Mind: Mental States and Reality

Functionalism and the Mind-Body Problem

Beyond dualism and monism, Functionalism proposes that mental states are defined by their functional role—their causal relations to sensory inputs, other mental states, and behavioral outputs.

Dualism, Monism, and Emergent Properties

The theory of Emergent Properties attempts to synthesize the most attractive ideas of monism and dualism. Monism holds the view that human beings are formed of a single substance or reality.

Personalism: Unity of Body and Spirit

Personalism corrects previous philosophical thoughts by emphasizing the unity of the human body as simultaneously physical and spiritual.

Understanding Human Behavior

Defining Behavior

Behavior is the observable... Continue reading "The Philosophical Foundations of Human Behavior and Motivation" »

Common Principles of Teaching Programs

The teaching of strategies has led to the design of cognitive improvement programs consistent in providing students with development-oriented activities of cognitive functioning. Largely based on rigorous research, it has been shown that intelligence is amendable and not fixed, as classically thought. Theories such as those by S. Gardner and Enrberg have helped establish the theoretical foundation of the psychology of instruction by a considerable shift, despite the disagreement over the terminology to use. For example, S. Enrberg (1986) gives preference to the development of intelligence, while Feuers, Hoffman, and Miller (1980) use the term "modifiability." Chipman & Glaser (1985) lean toward the... Continue reading "Enhancing Cognitive Development Through Effective Teaching Strategies" »

Research Environments: Field and Laboratory Settings

Research environments can be in the field or the laboratory.

Core Approaches to Scientific Research

• Empiricism
• Dialectical Materialism
• Positivism
• Phenomenology
• Structuralism

Integration of Qualitative and Quantitative Methods

The qualitative and quantitative approaches are complementary and enrich research; they are complemented or replaced in some cases:

1. Carry out observation and evaluation of phenomena.
2. Lay down assumptions or ideas as a consequence of observation and assessment.
3. Test and demonstrate the degree to which assumptions or ideas are unfounded.
4. Review such assumptions or ideas on the basis of evidence or analysis.
5. Propose new observations and assessments to establish, modify, cement, substantiate

Psychology

Psychology is the science of behavior and activity of organisms and also because of the internal mechanisms...

a) Basic Psychology:

A part of psychology is devoted to the study of basic psychological processes (perception, tension, feeling, emotion...) general memory.

b) Applied Psychology:

Those aspects of psychology take inf. Psicol. basic, applied knowledge to solve specific people's problems.

1.3 Evolutionary Psychology (Study of Human Development):

Concept: Science that collaborates in different stages: adolescence, maturity. Areas: - Biosocial: development of physical and social effects that affect - Cognitive: mental processes, thinking subject, learning, communication. - Psychosocial: emotions, personality traits, relations with... Continue reading "Psychology: The Science of Behavior and Human Development" »

Scientific Hypothesis Formulation and Feyerabend's View

A hypothesis is an assumption about what happens in the world. The scientific method does not establish how a scenario arises or how it occurs to the scientist. In the formulation of hypotheses, factors come into play that may seem unscientific:

• Imagination
• Invention
• Chance
• Luck

Paul Feyerabend extends the influence of the imagination to all scientific procedure. He argues that the revolutionary discoveries of modern science are made possible by the freedom and spontaneity of scientific activity. To constrain scientific activity to a series of fixed steps makes science rather dogmatic and sterile. Feyerabend argues it is an illusion to think that these scientific discoveries are the result... Continue reading "Scientific Method Challenges: Feyerabend, Popper, and the Physics Crisis" »

Brain Structure and Function

The brain is the most important organ of the nervous system. Weighing approximately 1200 grams, it consists of two hemispheres. It is responsible for motor actions in response to stimuli and hormonal reactions. The brain comprises:

Neocortex (Cerebral Cortex)

Processes information, prepares responses, and is responsible for reasoning. It is divided into 4 lobes with distinct features:

• Frontal (association)
• Temporal (auditory)
• Occipital (visual)
• Parietal (sensory, motor)

Mesocortex (Limbic System)

Plays an important role in psychic life and in regulating functions that affect emotional life in general.

Paleocortex

Governs the operation of very basic aspects such as sleep or appetite.

Philosophical Views: Dualism

Dualism believes... Continue reading "Brain Structure, Mind, and Philosophy" »

Humanistic theory C. Rogers developed a humanistic psychology whose primary purpose was to understand and improve personalidad.Reconoció that person's conduct is conditioned by:-The constitution biological-social forces, "Past experiences. But also defended personal liberty: In the theory of C. Rogers is crucial concept: Self: the configuration is consistent organized perceptions, values and ideals that form the image. The personality assessment is the description and measure individual characteristics. It has several methods of personality assessment: 1. Direct observation is to collect and record information in a systematic and structured, the occurrence and duration of spontaneous behaviors of some people 2. Clinical Interview: A method... Continue reading "Matter" »

Item 2: Behavioral Concepts

1. Define Learning

Learning is the process by which experience produces a permanent change in knowledge or behavior.

3. Define Key Behavioral Terms

• Punishment: A consequence that, immediately after a behavior, lowers the probability that the conduct is repeated.
• Reinforcement: Defined as an event presented immediately after the occurrence of a behavior that increases the likelihood that the conduct is repeated.

Positive Reinforcement

This means that when presented, it increases the chances for a response to occur again. Example: Giving points for participating in class makes a student repeat participation.

Negative Reinforcement

These are consequences that, when removed from the situation, increase the likelihood that the... Continue reading "Behavior Modification: Learning, Reinforcement, and Punishment Principles" »