Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Culture and Socialization

Culture: When using the term "culture" in everyday conversation, it is generally considered equivalent to the higher aspects of the mind, like art, literature, music, and painting. Sociologists' use of the term includes such activities, but also others. Culture has to do with the lifestyles of members of a society or of groups within it. This includes dress, marriage customs and family life, work patterns, religious ceremonies, and pastimes.

"Culture" is conceptually distinct from "society," but there is a close relationship between both concepts. A society is a system of relationships that bind individuals. No culture could exist without society, but equally, there can be a society devoid of culture. Without culture,... Continue reading "Understanding Culture and Socialization in Society" »

Reinforcement: A consequence that increases the probability that a behavior will occur.

Escape Conditioning: Behavior is strengthened because it ends an unpleasant, present event.

Avoidance Conditioning: Behavior is strengthened because it postpones or prevents an objectionable event.

Punishment: A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur.

Social Learning Theory: Also known as imitation, this is learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates the behavior of another. It involves:

1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Motor Reproduction
4. Motivation or Incentive and Reinforcement

Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 Years)

During this stage, infants learn about themselves and their world through sensory development and motor activity.... Continue reading "Understanding Learning: Conditioning, Social Learning, and Cognitive Development" »

Socialization

Socialization is the process by which individuals within a society or culture learn and internalize a code of norms, values, and ways of perceiving reality. This provides them with the skills needed to function successfully in social interactions with other individuals.

Agents of Socialization

Primary Socialization

This is the first socialization that an individual goes through in childhood, and through it, they become a member of society. This occurs in the early years and primarily involves the family. It is characterized by a strong emotional charge. Primary socialization ends when the concept of the generalized other is established in the individual's conscience. At this point, the individual is an effective member of society.... Continue reading "Socialization and Social Groups: Understanding the Basics" »

Specific Methods

Axiomatic Method (Formal Sciences)

Responsible for forms (e.g., 2 + 2), consisting of symbols and conjunctions.

An axiom is a fundamental truth that cannot be doubted.

A theorem is a truth deduced through axioms.

Rules: Modes of operation.

Axiomatic System Characteristics:

• Independence: Cannot be inferred or proven from another axiom.
• Consistency: Deriving something and its opposite from an axiom is not possible. It must be demonstrated.
• Completeness or Decidability: Whether a statement is an axiom or a theorem; true or false.

Experimental Method

Based on experience and used as criteria to validate conclusions through experimental verification. Characterized by the degree of control that allows manipulation and treatment of situational... Continue reading "Exploring Scientific Methods: Axiomatic, Experimental, and More" »

Culture

Culture: All modes of life and habits, knowledge, and the level of artistic, scientific, and industrial development of a social group at a specific time.

Acculturation

Acculturation: The reception by a people or social group of cultural forms from another, leading to a more or less complete replacement of their own culture. Today, this is a very common phenomenon due to the technological development in telecommunications and the almost immediate and rapid exchange that has occurred in the era of the so-called (or misnomer) "global village." The term transculturation was coined in 1940 by the Cuban anthropologist Fernando Ortiz, intending to describe a process where one culture creatively incorporates elements from another, implying both... Continue reading "Cultural Dynamics and Forms of Violence Explained" »

Integrative Theoretical Models of Crime

The Theory of Stress, Social Control, and Social Learning

These authors propose two paths that may lead to criminal behavior. The first, and likely the most common, begins with a weak link to conventional society. This is coupled with negative experiences that foster proximity to and involvement with groups engaged in criminal activity. The second path starts with a strong link to conventional society, but this link is weakened by various experiences and failures in achieving socially prescribed goals. These experiences may include limited opportunities, negative labeling, and conflicts within the family or community. Consequently, this leads to contact with and joining groups of offenders.

Links or controls... Continue reading "Understanding Crime: Factors, Theories, and Trends in Spain" »

Understanding Human Motivation

By Pablo Murillo

Motivation is a process or series of processes that initiate, manage, maintain, and finally stop a sequence of goal-directed behavior. It is the process by which stimuli, objects, mental representations, and images, as variables involved in human behavior, acquire causative value. This causative value is exercised over all behavior because motivation has intimate connections with attention, memory, learning, and other cognitive processes.

Memorandum: Conditions that cause, maintain, and regulate behavior.

These motives are not observable variables but hypothetical constructs: we can infer them from observable behaviors.

Levels of Motivation

Primary or Biological Motivation

• It is about the survival of

Phenomenology: Husserl and Heidegger

What is Phenomenology?

• Phenomenology is what shows itself: the patent, manifest.
• It is also an access method to phenomena to seek their basis.
• According to Martin Heidegger, it is through the phenomenological method that the meaning of being is revealed.
• It is a purely descriptive method based on shared experiences. From the known world and intersubjective experiences (a method of participatory research), signals are obtained, providing guidelines for interpreting the diversity of symbols. From this, it is possible to interpret social processes and structures.
• It examines all contents of consciousness to determine if these contents are real, ideal, imaginary, etc.
• Phenomenological consciousness suspends judgment

Who Are Our Role Models?

True role models embody qualities we admire and inspire us to become better versions of ourselves. They encourage us to advocate for our beliefs and take leadership on important issues. We often don't recognize our true role models until we've experienced personal growth. For example, I believe I serve as a temporary role model for my younger sister, though she may not admit it yet. A role model is someone whose behavior, example, or success can be emulated by others, especially younger people.

It's fascinating to hear who people admire; it's not always who you'd expect. It's crucial for individuals to see themselves reflected in decision-makers.

The Psychological Impact of Role Models

Role models are psychologically... Continue reading "The Importance of Role Models" »

Understanding Emotions

Anger

Anger arises when we face frustration or aversion. It energizes us to take action, providing renewed vigor after a frustrating experience, enabling defense or achievement of goals.

Hostility

Hostility is a complex emotion blending anger, disgust, indignation, contempt, and resentment. It lacks a specific facial expression, but can lead to anger and violence.

Humor

Humor emerges after a non-serious error, producing laughter and positive feelings. A smile and laughter are its expressions. It relaxes us, mitigates negativity, and benefits mental and physical health.

Happiness

Happiness fosters positive reception and interpretation of environmental stimuli. More durable than fleeting pleasure, it seeks emotional stability.... Continue reading "Exploring Human Emotions: From Anger to Love" »