Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Meaningful Learning

Occurs when new information connects to a relevant pre-existing cognitive structure. This implies that new ideas, concepts, and propositions can be learned significantly as other relevant ideas, concepts, or proposals are adequately clear and available in an individual's cognitive structure and function as an anchor point to the former.

Mechanical Learning

Occurs when there are inadequate pre-existing cognitive structures, so the new information is stored arbitrarily, without interacting with pre-existing knowledge.

Learning by Discovery

Involves students sorting information, integrating it with their cognitive structure, and reorganizing or transforming the integrated combination to produce the desired learning.

Reception Learning

The... Continue reading "Learning Theories: Meaningful, Mechanical, and Eclectic Approaches" »

Child Sexual Abuse: Identifying High-Risk Factors

Understanding the factors that increase a child's vulnerability to sexual abuse is crucial for prevention and intervention. Several key areas contribute to a child being at high risk:

Gender-Based Risk

Traditionally, the female sex has been considered at higher risk. Various studies consistently indicate a significantly higher incidence of sexual abuse among girls, often cited as 2-3 girls for every boy, especially in cases of intrafamilial sexual abuse. This disparity is primarily attributed to the fact that most abusers are heterosexual males.

Age-Related Vulnerability

The ages of greatest risk are typically between 6-7 years and 10-12 years. Research suggests that more than twice as many cases... Continue reading "Child Sexual Abuse: Risk Factors and Offender Motivations" »

Types of Reinforcement

Bandura identifies three forms of reinforcement that promote learning by observation:

1. Direct Reinforcement: Reinforcing the observer directly when they reproduce the model's behavior.

2. Indirect or Vicarious Reinforcement: Reinforcing the model. Observing the consequences of others' behavior can modify behavior similarly to direct experience. Vicarious reinforcement:

• a) Informs observers about appropriate behavior based on success and failure patterns.
• b) Enhances practical learning through direct experience, as multiple observers can be exposed to the modeled behavior simultaneously.
• c) Reduces attention demands compared to direct experience.

3. Self-Reinforcement: Controlling one's own reinforcements without expecting... Continue reading "Observational Learning: Reinforcement and Classroom Application" »

Observation: Concepts and Features

Observation is an inherent part of human nature, integrated into our psychology in relation to everyday events. It involves the perception of a phenomenon that is selected and recorded without manipulation, making the observer a passive witness of what has occurred.

Observation can vary in its degree of systematization, ranging from casual observation to those that adhere to strict methodological criteria.

Observation becomes a scientific technique when it meets the following criteria:

• It is part of an objective investigation.
• It is stated and recorded systematically.
• It is subject to checks and controls regarding validity and reliability.

Types of Observation

Self-Observation

Self-observation occurs when the observer... Continue reading "Understanding Observation: Types and Techniques" »

What are the Functions of Assessment?

The role of assessment includes formative assessment, diagnostic evaluation, forecast evaluation, and function-oriented evaluation.

What is Diagnostic Assessment?

Diagnostic assessment is performed prior to the development of the educational process. To perform a diagnostic evaluation, different procedures can be used, such as written questions, oral exchanges with the group on the topic of interest, and observing the student in their work related to the themes.

What is Formative Assessment?

This assessment is the most important in the educational process because it provides the student with feedback (and of course, feedback to the teacher) regarding their performance. It indicates what has been achieved, what... Continue reading "Understanding Educational Assessment: Types, Functions, and Tools" »

Party Roles

A role is defined as an individual's function within a group. Individuals can fulfill multiple roles across different groups.

Status refers to an individual's position within a hierarchical structure.

The role involves practicing behaviors aligned with the status held. While a person may play different roles, certain behaviors define each role. Studying the "Johari Window" helps understand how individuals present themselves in relation to others.

Johari Window: Four Key Areas

• Open Area: What I know about myself and what others know about me.
• Blind Spot: What others know about me, but I don't know about myself.
• Hidden Area: What I know about myself, but others don't know.
• Unknown Area: What neither I nor others know about me.

Within groups,... Continue reading "Understanding Group Dynamics: Roles, Conflicts, and Teamwork" »

Understanding Participant Observation Nuances

However, there are nuances. Systematic observation (excluding verbal interaction) is easy to perform in open spaces. It is also relatively smooth when the researcher is introduced as a participant but primarily functions as an observer (e.g., journalists).

The researcher undergoes a progressive process, starting from initial integration into the observed group. Initially, they are inevitably guided by their pre-existing theoretical assumptions (etic approach). This continues until they grasp the group's own interpretation of reality, which the group uses to classify, arrange, and organize their experiences (emic approach).

It is crucial to gain an insider's perspective on the field and systematize... Continue reading "Participant Observation: Field Access and Research Dynamics" »

Pervasive Developmental Disorders

Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDD) are characterized by significant difficulties in several areas of development, including social interaction, communication, behavior, interests, and activities.

Rett Syndrome

Rett syndrome is primarily diagnosed in girls. Development appears normal until 6-18 months, when parents notice a regression or loss of skills (gross motor, language, reasoning, and hand use). Repetitive, meaningless gestures (e.g., hand washing) may appear.

Childhood Disintegrative Disorder

Childhood Disintegrative Disorder is an extremely rare disorder involving regression in multiple areas of functioning (e.g., motor skills, bowel and bladder control, and social and language skills) after at least... Continue reading "Understanding Pervasive Developmental Disorders: Autism Spectrum" »

Preconscious

The preconscious system is located between the unconscious and the conscious. Although its contents are not endowed with consciousness, it differs from the unconscious in the following ways:

• They have been forbidden passage to the conscience but have not been repelled by it through repression.
• Their representations are linked to language and operate with the laws of logic and language.

Although the information in memory would be in the area of the preconscious, some traces of certain experiences that have been subjected to repression are inscribed in the unconscious.

Conscious

Consciousness, for Freud, need not be characterized as coinciding with the consciousness of which philosophers and everyday speech speak. Freud seems to overlook... Continue reading "Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory: Key Concepts Explained" »

Motivation and Emotion: Key Concepts and Theories

Altea's Goal Setting and Test Adoption

Altea intends to adopt this test and look good in front of their peers to meet their goals. One goal is the implementation of the test.

McDougall's Instinct Theory

According to McDougall, which instinct corresponds to the following pattern: If a body is determined to achieve goals, despite difficulties, frustrations, and rages, it will be guided by the instinct of fight.

Incentives and Student Behavior

A student of motivation and emotion, after receiving a teacher's positive comment for a statement made in class, decides to increase their "class participation" behavior. In relation to this student's conduct, the teacher's comment served as a positive secondary,