Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Innermost Regions of the Brain

Innermost regions of the brain are responsible for the basic involuntary functions, while outer regions of the brain are conscious and high-order thinking. The outer layer responsible for these higher functions is called the cortex.

Brain Stem

Base of the brain, it is attached to the spinal cord. The brain stem controls our heartbeat.

Thalamus

Above the brain stem. It receives all the sensory information from our senses (except smell) and sends it to other parts of the brain to process the data.

Cerebellum

Behind the brain stem. It coordinates movement like walking and plays a role in non-verbal learning and memory.

Visual Cortex

Located in the back of the brain. It receives and processes visual information.

Frontal Lobe

General... Continue reading "Understanding the Innermost Regions of the Brain and Its Functions" »

Core Concepts in Social Science

Ontology

Ontology: Vad som existerar och vad det betyder att något existerar (What exists and what it means for something to exist).

• Is the social world fundamentally different from the natural world?
• How do researchers conceptualize what they study?
• Is there an objective reality that exists independently of us, or is it in important respects, subjectively created?

Epistemology

Epistemology: Kunskapsteori, läran om vad man kan veta och hur man kan nå kunskap (Theory of knowledge, the study of what can be known and how to acquire knowledge).

• What type or form of knowledge should we pursue?
• What is legitimate knowledge about the social world?
• How do researchers know what they know?
• What is knowable?

Methodology

Methodology:

T1/2: Public Relations (PR)

What is PR?

PR encompasses the relationships an organization cultivates to establish, promote, and maintain mutual understanding with its public. These relationships foster globalization and international exchanges, aiming to align the organization's objectives with the public interest.

Why is PR Important?

1. Vital for Outreach: PR is crucial for connecting with your target audience.
2. Reputation Management: PR helps build and maintain a positive reputation for your company.
3. Community Building: PR creates allies and advocates within the community.
4. Attracting Talent: PR can improve the quality of student and applicant pools.
5. Demonstrating Impact: PR showcases your organization's impact and results to funding agencies.
6. Enhancing

New Opportunities in Retirement

New Opportunity

For many older Americans—particularly those who are financially secure—retirement is accompanied by a feeling of freedom. In retirement, they have the time to do many of the things they always wanted to do. They also have the chance to try new things. Many people use part of the time in late adulthood to travel. Others take college courses. Still others pursue activities—such as crafts, golf, photography, or gardening—that they may have been interested in for many years.

Some elderly Americans begin a second career, either for pay or as volunteers. In recent years, part-time employment opportunities have increased for senior citizens.

Many volunteer programs provide opportunities for older... Continue reading "Retirement Opportunities and Senior Health" »

Essential Vocabulary List

• Uncanny: Extraordinary; unimaginable; seemingly supernatural.
• Underlying: Basic; fundamental; only noticeable under scrutiny.
• Undermine: To impair; to subvert; to weaken by excavating underneath.
• Underpinning: A system of supports beneath; a foundation or basis.
• Underscore: To underline; to emphasize.
• Underwrite: To sponsor; to subsidize; to insure.
• Unilateral: Involving one side only; done on behalf of one side only; one-sided; not mutual.
• Usury: Lending money at an extremely high rate of interest.
• Vacuous: Empty of content; lacking in ideas or intelligence.
• Vagary: Whim; unpredictable action; wild notion.
• Vanquish: To conquer; to overpower.
• Veneer: Facade; coating; outward appearance.
• Verdant: Covered with green plants; leafy;

Behavioral Measurement Techniques

Understanding and accurately measuring behavior is fundamental in behavior analysis. These techniques allow for systematic data collection and analysis.

Continuous Measurement

Continuous measurement involves recording every instance of a behavior as it occurs over time, providing a complete picture of its occurrence.

• Frequency

  The total count of how many times a behavior occurred. Example: A client left their seat 5 times.

• Rate

  The ratio of the count of a behavior per observation time. Example: 4 kicks per 5 minutes equals 0.80 kicks per minute, or 80%.

• Duration (Temporal Extent)

  The total extent of time a behavior occurs. Example: Adding the seconds of total extent (35+26+24+65+30) equals 180 seconds, which is 3 minutes.

Types of Employment Tests

Understanding the various types of employment tests is crucial for effective candidate evaluation and successful hiring. These assessments help organizations identify individuals with the right skills, abilities, and personality traits for specific roles.

Assessment Centers

Assessment centers are designed to measure many different types of job-related skills and abilities. They are often used to assess interpersonal skills, communication skills, planning and organizing, and analytical skills. Typically, an assessment center consists of exercises that reflect job content and the types of problems faced on the job.

Biographical Data

The content of biographical data instruments varies widely, and may include areas such as... Continue reading "Key Employment Tests for Successful Hiring" »

Understanding Mental Disorders

Significant impairments in psychological functioning are called mental disorders. These psychological or behavioral syndromes occur in response to the distress or disability that a particular event provokes (SHAPSE, 2008) and affect diverse features of someone’s behavior or personality depending on the brain area damaged or the environment the patient is surrounded by (Garety, Kuipers, Fowler, Freeman & Bebbington, 2001). Mental illnesses are caused by maladaptive or dysfunctional traits or by the presence of psychological stressors (APA, 2013).

The World Health Organization (2001) announced that a high percentage of people worldwide will suffer from some mental disorders or brain conditions at some point... Continue reading "Understanding Mental Disorders: Types, Causes, and Impact" »

We constantly see unattainable beauty standards in the media, and it can significantly harm young girls. The media can cause body dissatisfaction, low self-esteem, and disordered eating. When girls compare their bodies to what they see in the media, it increases their chances of having a poor body image. Research has shown that media consumption is negatively associated with self-esteem, meaning the more a girl consumes media, the greater the chance she will have lower self-esteem.

Regarding disordered eating, research has shown that constant exposure to unhealthy messages about body image is related to disordered eating behaviors. When young girls see these unhealthy messages, such as the need for a thigh gap or a flat stomach, it can increase... Continue reading "The Media's Unrealistic Beauty Standards and Their Impact on Young Girls" »