Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Two Phases of Socialization

Socialization occurs in two main phases:

Primary Socialization

Primary socialization happens during early childhood. Parents teach the organization of time (e.g., lunch breaks, rest periods), the language of symbolic communication, and rules of conduct through positive and negative reinforcement (rewards and punishments). This phase is characterized by an intense emotional charge. Mechanisms involve early identification with cultural elements. The organization of time and space, and the sense of familiarity produced naturally, foster ontological security. This implies the internalization of cultural values in a natural, common-sense manner.

Conventional Primary Socialization

Within primary socialization, the conventional... Continue reading "Understanding Human Socialization Stages and Mechanisms" »

Understanding Innate Behaviors

Innate behaviors are fixed patterns to complex vital actions, which appeared during the formation or genesis of a species. The distinctive characteristics of these behaviors are:

1. Specific to the species.
2. Highly stereotyped.
3. Once initiated, they proceed to completion.
4. Not significantly learned.
5. Resistant to change.
6. Triggered by a specific stimulus.

Habituation and Sensitization: Non-Associative Learning

Although innate reflexes are unconditioned, they can serve as a basis for learning new reflexes. Learned patterns, however, cannot be fixed or conditioned. Habituation and sensitization are mechanisms that allow organisms to change their structures and functions through interaction with the environment. Habituation (H) and... Continue reading "Understanding Innate Behaviors, Learning, and Memory" »

Consciousness is a central fact of human existence, because without it, all other aspects of our life (perception, thought, emotion, etc.) are meaningless.

Characteristics of Consciousness

• Involves short-term memory.
• Is independent of sensory inputs (e.g., fantasizing).
• Requires focused attention.
• Has the ability to process alternative interpretations of complex or ambiguous data.
• Disappears and reappears during sleep (deep sleep to dreaming), at least in a changed or disjointed way.

Methods to Investigate Consciousness

• Observing and measuring the actions of an experimental subject, collecting reports of internal experience (e.g., heart rate, breathing, overall brain electrical activity).
• Investigating patients with brain injuries.

Waking vs. Dreaming

... Continue reading "Understanding Consciousness, Dreams, and States" »

Social Network Structures

Matrices of Social Organization

Community Structures

Community: Provides property security, stability, permanence, identity, and history, delivering more solid structures of meaning to people. It is composed of homogenous, traditional elements that resist change.

Institutional Structures

Institutional: A workspace with more structured, hierarchical, and instrumental relations aimed at collecting specific purposes. A more important role is assigned to the personality of this structure, governed by the logic of efficiency, effectiveness optimization, and rationalization.

Reticular Structures

Reticular: An open, mobile, flexible, and heterogeneous system with less stability; it is instrumentally functional.

Network Components

... Continue reading "Understanding Social Network Structures and Dynamics" »

Understanding Child Emotional & Social Development

Separation Anxiety: Meaning, Age, and Explanatory Factors

Separation anxiety is a form of phobic reaction, classified as a separation anxiety disorder, characterized by emotions such as fear, insecurity, or apprehension. This anxiety arises from separation from parental figures or primary caregivers.

Typically, separation anxiety from a caregiver appears between 8 and 14 months of age. During this period, the child's emotional responses, including anger, increase in speed, intensity, and persistence.

The Meaning of "Self": Manifestation in Children and Consequences

Self-awareness involves recognizing one's own moods, resources, and intuitions. It means understanding our emotions, how they affect... Continue reading "Child Development: Emotions, Self-Awareness, and Attachment" »

Participatory Research Instruments

The workshop at the IA, focused on practical application, aims to foster debate and reflection on specific project aspects. The most important instruments in Action Research (AI) are those that induce participation throughout the research process. These include: Brainstorming, the SWOT Method, Maps, and Participant Surveys.

Brainstorming Technique

Brainstorming allows for the formation of a common group and the collection of all views, knowledge, or experiences related to a previously proposed theme. The development is very simple:

1. The researcher presents an issue clearly and poses a question to be answered by each group component.
2. Participants propose and discuss their ideas.
3. The researcher notes these ideas in

... Continue reading "Action Research Tools: Brainstorming, SWOT Analysis, and Participatory Mapping" »

Understanding Awareness and Consciousness

Awareness Defined

Awareness is the subjective experience of self-knowledge and reality. It is formed by experiences of the external world and internal mental and emotional experiences.

Altered States of Consciousness

Altered states of consciousness are natural and artificial events that modify our subjective experience. Consequences include:

• Abnormal thinking
• Loss of sense of time
• Loss of control
• Changes in the expression of emotions
• Perceptual disturbances and changes in body image
• Changes in meaning or significance
• Increased suggestibility

The Realm of Sleep and Dreams

The Nature of Dreams

A dream is a state of consciousness occurring during sleep. It is characterized by the individual typically adopting a particular... Continue reading "Consciousness, Sleep, and Learning Mechanisms Explained" »

Understanding Socialization: Process and Definition

Socialization defines the process by which a person becomes socially responsible, learning and endorsing the standards and values of the society in which they live. Socialization presents two distinct aspects:

• The Visible Face: Describes how the individual acts within their culture, playing a decisive role.
• The Internal Face: A more psychological aspect, describing how the person internalizes and develops their own way of living.

This process is essentially the way we integrate into the culture we are in contact with, finding its way into our cognitive framework.

The Stages of Socialization

Primary Socialization

This is the most important and basic stage, occurring during childhood. It is primarily... Continue reading "Social Development Stages and Neurotransmitter Action" »

Understanding Manipulation & Influence

What is Manipulation?

Manipulation is an indirect form of social influence where one person affects another, aiming to change their belief, attitude, emotion, or behavior.

Defining Power

Power is the capacity to affect or influence the behavior of others.

Types of Manipulators and Their Victims

The Dictator

The Dictator is the manipulator par excellence. They dominate, order, cite arguments from authority, and use any means to subjugate their victims.

The Submissive (or "Little Thing")

The Submissive knows very well how to behave with the dictator: they exaggerate their susceptibility, forget things, listen, and remain silent.

The Calculator

The Calculator aims to control everything. They lie, hide data, and... Continue reading "Workplace Dynamics: Influence, Stress, and Burnout" »

Profile: Graphic Depictions

A profile provides graphic depictions of the results from a battery of tests or different individual tests.

Control List: Developmental Milestones

A control list refers to a set of tasks or minimal evidence of development expected at a given age.

Evaluating Motor Development

Why Evaluate Motor Development?

Motor development evaluation serves several key purposes:

• Determines an individual's current motor situation and tracks its evolution over time.
• Helps understand the processes that influence an individual's motor responses and how to intervene effectively.
• Enables the determination of appropriate interventions and provides feedback on the effectiveness of pedagogical actions.
• Assists individuals in understanding and diagnosing

... Continue reading "Comprehensive Motor Assessment: Tests, Criteria, and Instruments" »