Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

The Hypothetical-Deductive Method: Core Principles

The method of experimental science is called the hypothetical-deductive method. (From Greek 'meta-odos', meaning 'the way after' or 'pursuit of a path'.) The main element of this method is the hypothesis. A hypothesis is a general statement that establishes a causal relationship between two types of natural phenomena that are linked or associated. For example: "Whenever A appears, B will always follow."

This type of relationship establishes a universal and necessary causal connection. For example, "All bodies are attracted to the Earth with an acceleration of 9.8 m/s²" is a hypothesis.

Formulating Predictions

Once a hypothesis is formulated, we proceed to make a prediction. A prediction is a statement... Continue reading "Scientific Inquiry: The Hypothetical-Deductive Approach" »

Primary Socialization

Stage

This occurs during the early years of life.

Features

• Acquisition of norms and customs.
• Powered and favored by emotional ties.
• There is no deliberation or awareness of this process.
• Essential for the integral formation of the individual.
• Interference or disruptions could have irreversible consequences.

Examples

• Language acquisition.
• Learning social customs.
• Assimilation of rules and values.

Mechanisms

• Imitation
• Rewards and punishments

Secondary Socialization

Stage

This process occurs throughout an individual's life.

Features

• Involves readjustment to changes in the environment.
• Based on emotional relationships and other interests.
• It is a conscious and deliberate process.
• Represents a less intense form of socialization.
• It is more effective

Función del Documento de Investigación

El documento de un proyecto de investigación presenta la información de la misma. Su función es dar a conocer cómo se realizará la investigación y tiene tres fines principales:

• Medio de control: Para el control externo o interno de la investigación.
• Programación: Detalla el hardware y software necesarios para realizar las tareas de investigación.
• Contratación: Define el valor del contrato y es esencial para su contextualización.

Proceso de Desarrollo del Proyecto

El desarrollo del proyecto considera varios contextos:

1. Contexto de la demanda: Se aborda a través de preguntas clave como: ¿de parte de quién surge el requerimiento?, ¿con qué motivo?, ¿qué finalidad práctica se persigue?
2. Contexto

Gender and Sex: Defining the Differences

Sexuality appears to us as an area of highly complex human behavior, which is undergoing fundamental change in contemporary societies. The term "sex" is ambiguous. As commonly used, it indicates the physical and cultural differences that exist between men and women (the male and female) as well as the sexual act itself. It is useful to distinguish between sex in the physiological or biological sense of the term, and gender, a cultural construct (a set of learned behavior patterns).

The Process of Gender Socialization

Some people argue that the behavioral differences between the sexes are genetically determined. However, gender socialization begins as soon as the baby is born. Even parents who believe they... Continue reading "Sociological Perspectives on Gender and Sexuality" »

Declarative Memory (Knowing What)

Declarative (knowing what). This memory stores information and knowledge of events. These facts and memories form the body of knowledge of a person and allow us to express our thoughts.

Types of Declarative Memory

There are two types of declarative memory:

• Episodic Memory

  It is the personal memory that allows us to remember dates, facts, or experienced episodes at a specific time and place. It stores life events and also the circumstances where the knowledge was acquired. The source is episodic memory and sensory perception; the information contained is organized in time.

• Semantic Memory

  Stores the knowledge of language and the world, entirely independent of the circumstances of its learning. Cultural understanding

Human Needs Hierarchy

The hierarchy of human needs dictates that once needs at one level are satisfied, new needs and desires at a higher level emerge. These levels are:

1. Physiological Needs: Essential for survival and health.
2. Safety and Security: Reinsurance, protection, love, and stability.
3. Emotional Relationships: Membership and belonging.
4. Esteem: Self-help and the pursuit of exceeding performance.

Psychology's Purpose and Ethics

Psychology has human purposes and objectives, such as social welfare and quality of life. The profession is governed by a code of ethics designed to serve as a pattern of professional conduct. Psychologists respect and promote integrity in science.

Criminology and Forensic Psychology

Gross Hans's criminology suggests that... Continue reading "Human Needs Hierarchy, Psychology, and Disaster Levels" »

Long-Term Memory Classification

Long-term memory is divided into the following types:

• Episodic Memory: Storing facts and personal experiences.
• Semantic Memory: Storing information related to our knowledge of the world, often associated with language.
• Procedural Memory: Storing information related to skills that, once learned, are performed almost unconsciously.

Information Retrieval

Information retrieval is the process of accessing and recalling stored information.

Space-Temporal Orientation

This corresponds to the ability of a person to orient themselves with respect to objects, places, and time at a given moment.

It is divided into:

• Temporal Orientation: The ability to place ourselves in time and understand the timeline of events (e.g., parts of the

Two Phases of Socialization

Socialization occurs in two main phases:

Primary Socialization

Primary socialization happens during early childhood. Parents teach the organization of time (e.g., lunch breaks, rest periods), the language of symbolic communication, and rules of conduct through positive and negative reinforcement (rewards and punishments). This phase is characterized by an intense emotional charge. Mechanisms involve early identification with cultural elements. The organization of time and space, and the sense of familiarity produced naturally, foster ontological security. This implies the internalization of cultural values in a natural, common-sense manner.

Conventional Primary Socialization

Within primary socialization, the conventional... Continue reading "Understanding Human Socialization Stages and Mechanisms" »

Understanding Innate Behaviors

Innate behaviors are fixed patterns to complex vital actions, which appeared during the formation or genesis of a species. The distinctive characteristics of these behaviors are:

1. Specific to the species.
2. Highly stereotyped.
3. Once initiated, they proceed to completion.
4. Not significantly learned.
5. Resistant to change.
6. Triggered by a specific stimulus.

Habituation and Sensitization: Non-Associative Learning

Although innate reflexes are unconditioned, they can serve as a basis for learning new reflexes. Learned patterns, however, cannot be fixed or conditioned. Habituation and sensitization are mechanisms that allow organisms to change their structures and functions through interaction with the environment. Habituation (H) and... Continue reading "Understanding Innate Behaviors, Learning, and Memory" »

Consciousness is a central fact of human existence, because without it, all other aspects of our life (perception, thought, emotion, etc.) are meaningless.

Characteristics of Consciousness

• Involves short-term memory.
• Is independent of sensory inputs (e.g., fantasizing).
• Requires focused attention.
• Has the ability to process alternative interpretations of complex or ambiguous data.
• Disappears and reappears during sleep (deep sleep to dreaming), at least in a changed or disjointed way.

Methods to Investigate Consciousness

• Observing and measuring the actions of an experimental subject, collecting reports of internal experience (e.g., heart rate, breathing, overall brain electrical activity).
• Investigating patients with brain injuries.

Waking vs. Dreaming