Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Cognition, Perception, and Knowledge

• Cognition: The processes a system uses to acquire, store, represent, use, and respond to signals/information from the body and environment (e.g., body signals, environmental stimuli).

• Cognition: The mental operations that support people’s acquisition and use of knowledge.

• Conscious Cognition: Thought processes we are aware of, such as reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving.

• Non-conscious Cognition: Mental processes that occur automatically, without conscious awareness, such as perception, memory retrieval, and habitual actions.

• All aspects of cognition are... INTERTWINED

• Top-down Processing: Processes (i.e., knowledge-based; e.g., thought and motivations) influence what we detect, attend to, and perceive!

1. Why is the Brain a "Miser"?

• The brain is often described as a "miser" because it strives to conserve cognitive resources and minimize mental energy expenditure. This principle, known as **cognitive miserliness**, refers to how the brain prefers using shortcuts and simplified processes to make decisions and respond to the world efficiently. It avoids complex, energy-consuming tasks whenever possible. This approach affects consumer behavior as shoppers tend to make decisions based on intuition and ease rather than through extensive deliberation.

Three Strategies of Cognitive Miserliness

• Efficiency

  Our brain uses heuristics, or mental shortcuts, to simplify decision-making processes. This includes reliance on quick judgments and familiar patterns

Understanding Organizational Culture

Organizational culture is the set of shared norms and values that govern interactions among members of the organization and between them and external stakeholders such as suppliers and customers.

Core Components of Culture

• Values: These are general principles that guide people in distinguishing desirable behaviors, events, situations, and outcomes from undesirable ones.
• Norms: These are behavioral standards or styles considered acceptable within a group of people.

Culture Transmission: Socialization and Tactics

Organizational culture is primarily transmitted through socialization. Socialization is the process through which members learn and internalize the organizational culture.

The 12 socialization tactics significantly... Continue reading "Organizational Culture: Understanding Socialization & Newcomer Integration" »

Nature of the Information Used

Research Approaches

• Qualitative Studies: Focus on internal aspects (attitudes, "why?"). Uses small samples and methods like focus groups.
• Quantitative Studies: Focus on numerical analysis ("how much?", "where?"). Uses statistical precision and larger samples.
• Mixed Studies: A combination of both approaches.

Research by Role

• Descriptive Research: Provides broad information; often the starting point.
• Exploratory Research: Identifies problems or opportunities and tests hypotheses.
• Explanatory Research: Detects cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
• Predictive Research: Quantitative estimation of magnitudes over time (e.g., demand, prices).
• Control Research: Analyzes the results of decisions already made.

Qualitative

Jackson and Cox's Three Experimental Designs

Jackson and Cox describe three primary types of experimental designs:

Lab Experiments

Lab experiments are designed to manipulate both the social networks within which exchanges will be undertaken, as well as the form of social exchange.

Strengths:

• Manipulation of independent variables indicates cause-and-effect relationships.
• Increased control and accurate measurement.
• Standardized procedures allow for replication.

Weaknesses:

• Total control over all variables is not possible.
• Artificial conditions may produce unnatural behavior that lacks ecological validity.
• Results are likely to be biased by sampling, demand characteristics, and experimenter expectancy.
• May raise ethical concerns, such as deception.

Field Experiments

A... Continue reading "Understanding Experimental Designs: Lab, Field, and Survey Methods" »

Differentiation in Language Learning

Differentiation occurs when one category in the L1 corresponds to two or more categories in the L2. For example, English has one verb "to know," but Catalan differentiates this meaning into two verbs: saber and conèixer. An English speaker learning Catalan must learn to distinguish between these two verbs where English has only one. For this reason, differentiation is considered the most difficult category in the learning hierarchy.

Working Memory and Language Acquisition

Working Memory (WM) is a limited cognitive system that temporarily stores and processes information at the same time. In Second Language Acquisition (SLA), it allows learners to hold linguistic information in mind while understanding, comparing,... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Second Language Acquisition and Cognition" »

Final Exam Item Pool - Part 1

Section 1: Levels of Measurement

1. A developmental psychologist records children’s ages in full years. A colleague argues this variable should be treated as ordinal because one cannot be certain children aged 6 and 7 differ by “exactly one year” in psychological maturity. Which response best evaluates this argument?

• a) The colleague is correct; developmental maturity is inherently ordinal.
• b) The colleague is incorrect; age in years has equal intervals and a true zero, making it ratio.
• c) The colleague is correct because ratio measurement requires a psychological, not just physical, zero point.
• d) The colleague is incorrect because classifying a variable depends on conceptual intent, not physical properties.

2.

Research Ethics: Core Principles & Case Studies

Ethical Violations: Critical Case Studies – Examples to understand in detail:

• The Little Albert Study – Classical conditioning of fear in a child without informed consent; no debriefing; potential long-term harm; lack of parental protection; poor beneficence and justice.

• The Bobo Doll Study – Exposed children to aggressive behavior; lack of parental consent (in early days); potential modeling of harm; possible psychological distress.

• The Stanford Prison Experiment – Psychological harm; lack of informed consent for extreme conditions; poor withdrawal rights; deception.

Belmont Report Principles

• Respect for Persons (Autonomy, Informed Consent)

• Beneficence (Maximize Benefits, Minimize Harm)

• Justice

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory Concepts

A key concept in this theory is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which refers to the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance. Within this zone, learning is most effective because the learner is challenged but supported. Related to ZPD is the role of a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)—someone, such as a teacher, parent, or peer, who provides assistance and guidance tailored to the learner’s current level. This support is often called scaffolding, where help is gradually withdrawn as the learner gains competence.

Vygotsky also highlighted the importance of language and thought. Language serves as the primary tool of cognitive development, allowing... Continue reading "Major Theories and Concepts in Developmental Psychology" »

Conformity and Social Influence (≈200 words)

Conformity refers to a change in an individual’s behavior, belief, or attitude due to real or imagined pressure from a group. People conform to be accepted by others or because they believe the group is correct. Solomon Asch’s line-judgment experiment demonstrated that individuals often conform to group opinions even when the group is clearly wrong.

There are two main types of conformity:

• Normative conformity — when individuals conform to gain social approval or avoid rejection.
• Informational conformity — when individuals accept group opinions as a source of correct information, especially in ambiguous situations.

Factors influencing conformity include group size, unanimity, group cohesion,... Continue reading "Applied Social Psychology: Conformity, Norms & Interventions" »