Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Credibility

The extent to which a speaker is perceived as a competent spokesperson.

Pathos

The emotional appeal of the speech, used to reach the heart of the listeners.

Ethos

The credibility or believability of the speaker, which helps convince listeners.

Values

Socially shared ideas about what is good, right, and desirable.

Hidden Agenda

A private motivation for acting in a certain way. This is considered unethical behavior.

Communication

The creation of shared meaning through symbolic processes.

Listener

Perceives through sensory levels and interprets, evaluates, and responds to what they hear.

Rhetoric

The art of persuasive speech.

Logos

The use of logic in the speech, which must be structurally solid and backed by evidence.

Oratory

A form of eloquent... Continue reading "Essential Concepts in Public Speaking and Communication" »

Social Collectives Shaping Our Actions

Four kinds of social collectives shape our actions:

1. Social Groups
2. Networks
3. Formal Organizations
4. Whole Societies

Social Groups

Primary & Secondary Groups. Group Leadership. Group Conformity. Reference Groups. In & Out Groups. Group Size

Primary Groups

Shapes attitudes, behavior, social identity. “A small social group whose members share personal & lasting relationships” (Cooley)

Conformity is an integral part that ensures group cohesion. Primary groups exert more pressure to conform than secondary groups. Emotional intimacy ensures similar beliefs.

Secondary Groups

Large & impersonal groups whose members pursue a specific goal/activity. Weak emotional ties, typically impersonal (co-workers). Many... Continue reading "Understanding Social Structures: Groups and Networks" »

Forensic Linguistics and Communication Analysis

Identification and Intertextuality

• Identification: Identify the author, speaker, and language.
• Intertextuality: Relate texts, assess independence, and form communicative groups (e.g., gangs).

Text Classification and Threat Assessment

• Text-Typing: Classify by text kind, assessing threatening communication, predatory chat, or evaluating a statement.

Linguistic Profiling

• Linguistic Profiling: Determine social and demographic characteristics by speech or language. Identify dialect, native language, gender, age, and educational level.

Automated Linguistic Identification

• ALIAS (Automated Linguistic Identification and Assessment System): An automated system for linguistic identification and assessment.

Neuro-Linguistic

... Continue reading "Forensic Linguistics and Behavioral Analysis Techniques" »

Freud's Psychogenic Theory

Sigmund Freud, a prominent psychogenic theorist, proposed that the human personality is shaped by three distinct influences:

The Id

• The Id represents the primal drives and impulses of the child.
• It is the only part of the personality that functions at birth.

The Ego

• The Ego develops during infancy and mediates between the Id and the external world.
• It seeks to satisfy the Id's impulses in a socially acceptable manner.

The Superego

• The Superego emerges around the age of 4-5 years.
• It represents the moral conscience and instills a sense of guilt.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism, pioneered by John Watson and B.F. Skinner, emphasizes the study of observable behaviors (stimuli and responses).

Skinner believed that learning occurs through reinforcement... Continue reading "Understanding Human Development: A Comprehensive Guide to Theories and Influences" »

Exclusion and Poverty

Poverty and Inequality

Defining Poverty

Poverty is a complex issue with various dimensions:

• Absolute Poverty: Lack of essential resources to meet basic needs like food, shelter, education, and healthcare.
• Relative Poverty: Having an income level below the societal average, even if basic needs are met.

Measuring Poverty

• Absolute Poverty: Establishing a fixed poverty line applicable to all locations.
• Relative Poverty: Comparing a specific group's income to the rest of the population.

Poverty as a Lack of Ability

Poverty should be viewed as a deprivation of basic abilities, often linked to income. While income is a crucial factor, it's not the sole determinant of one's capabilities.

The Relationship Between Income and Ability

Understanding... Continue reading "Social Exclusion and Poverty: An Abilities-Based Approach" »

Job Analysis

Definition and Approaches

Job analysis is the process of defining a job in terms of its tasks or duties, and the knowledge or skills required to perform them. There are two main approaches to job analysis:

• Job-oriented approaches: These approaches describe the various tasks that are performed in a job.
• Worker-oriented approaches: These approaches examine the broad human behaviors involved in work activities.

KSAOs

KSAOs (knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics) are the attributes required for successful job performance.

Outcomes of Job Analysis

• Job description: A statement of what jobholders do, how they do it, and why.
• Job specifications: A delineation of the KSAOs necessary to perform a job.

Importance of Job Analysis

Job... Continue reading "Job Analysis and Performance Measurement in Industrial Psychology" »

Core Concepts in Psychology: Questions and Answers

Motivation and Physiological Needs

1. Motivation is defined as: A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior towards a goal. (B)

2. Professor Sanford explains the organization of needs, such as the need for physical safety, within a hierarchy of motives. (D)

3. Prisoners of war placed on a starvation diet tend to spend a great deal of time daydreaming about food. (E)

4. Research on obesity and weight control indicates that once we become fat, our body often adapts, requiring less food (fewer calories) to maintain that weight compared to someone who has never been obese. (E)

Sexual Response and Social Behavior

4. Secretion of the female hormone, estrogen, peaks during ovulation. (D)

5. The ability of humans to

... Continue reading "Essential Psychology Concepts: Motivation, Emotion, and Health" »

Dissociative Disorders and Identity

Dissociative Fugue

Sudden, unexpected travel away from home or one’s customary place of work with an inability to recall one’s past.

Associated Features of Dissociative Fugue

• Confusion about personal identity or assumption of a new identity.
• Semantic and procedural memory remain intact.
• Very rare.
• Often serves as a defense against overwhelming stress.

Dissociative Amnesia

Inability to recall important personal information that cannot be explained by ordinary forgetfulness.

Associated Features of Dissociative Amnesia

• Episodic/autobiographical memory is impaired.
• Loss is (usually) reversible.
• Procedural and semantic memory remain intact.
• Lasts from days to weeks (rarely, years).

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

Formerly... Continue reading "Clinical Definitions of Dissociative, Sexual, and Somatic Disorders" »

Language and Culture Concepts

Chris Barker: Not what culture is, but rather how Language of Culture (L of C) is used. He thinks that there is no correct or definitive meaning because its usage and meaning change over time.

=> In general, many different notions of LTC (Language and Thought Connection)

1. Kramsch

Language is used to express and create categories of thought, shared by members of a social group. Language is responsible for attitudes and beliefs.

2. LRT (Language and Relativity Theory)

A young field, it has not been explored until the 1990s when the field of Applied Linguistics (AL) explored it. There is a growing interest because of advances in Cognitive Linguistics (CL) and Linguistic Anthropology (LA).

3. Johann Herder & Wilhelm

... Continue reading "Language and Culture Concepts: Key Theories" »

Defining Stress: A Complex Reaction

Stress is a complex series of reactions, both psychological and physical, in response to demanding or threatening situations.

What Are Stressors? Events Causing Demands

Stressors are events that produce physical and psychological demands on a person.

Common Types of Stressors Categorized

Types of stressors include:

• Environmental: Such as heat, noise.
• Physiological: Such as drugs, tobacco.
• Emotional: Such as pressures, life events.

Signs of Being Stressed: Typical Manifestations

Typically, people who are stressed out may show signs such as:

• Eating too much food.
• Abusing substances.
• Having difficulty focusing attention, making decisions, or sleeping.

Key Human Responses to Stress

Responses to stress can be:

• Psychological
• Cognitive
• Emotional
• Behavioral

Selye'

... Continue reading "Understanding Stress, Its Effects, and PTSD Symptoms" »