Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Understanding Well-being and Health

Contrary to popular belief, illness is not merely the absence of health, and being healthy does not necessarily mean that a person is well in all respects, both psychologically and physically. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity."

The Rise of Positive Psychology

In the last 60 years, psychologists have used the Disease Model to help alleviate suffering. However, a contemporary challenge in psychology is discovering how to promote health and improve people's lives. This is the central focus of positive psychology.

Techniques for Enhancing Well-being

Martin Seligman, a pioneer in positive... Continue reading "Promoting Well-being: Positive Psychology & Behavior Change" »

Stimulus Generalization Responding To a new stimulus in a way similar to the response to an established CS Fear extended to rabbits, fur coats, stuffed Animals Stimulus Discrimination: Responding Differently to a new stimulus than one responds to an established CS Extinction: Presenting a CS repeatedly, after conditioning, without the US, resulting In a loss in responding Spontaneous Recovery: Recovery of an Extinguished CR after a period of nonexposure to the CS

Types of partial reinforcement: Ratio Schedules A number of Responses (ratio) is required before reinforcement is deliveredFixed Ratio A set number of responses must be performed to obtain reinforcementVariable Ratio Number of responses required for reinforcement Will vary from trial... Continue reading "psychology" »

Expectancy Theory (VIE) - Three Key Components

People's behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives and these choices (behaviors) are systematically related to psychological processes - perceptions, beliefs, & attitudes. Emphasizes the need for organizations to relate rewards directly to performance, ensures the rewards are deserved & wanted by recipients.

EXPECTANCY:

Self-efficacy, their estimate of ability to complete the task, refers to the strength of a person's belief about the degree of a particular first-level outcome is the result of their actions (factors include confidence, budget, & materials).

INSTRUMENTALITY:

The connection between performance of the job and the outcomes that result. This connection determines... Continue reading "Expectancy Theory and Goal Setting Theory in Organizational Behavior" »

TIPS for Dealing

• PDI:

  High PDI - Don't try to push back explicitly, be aware you may need to go to the top for answers. Low PDI - Delegate as much as possible, ideally involve all those in decision making.

• Individuals:

  Accomplish, don't mix work life with social life, encourage debates and expressions. Low: Avoid giving negative feedback in public, saying no is expected, suppress feelings and emotions.

• MAS:

  High - Be aware of the possibility of differentiated gender roles, motivated by precise targets and by being able to show that they achieved them. Low - Avoid old boys school, workplace flexibility and work-life balance may be important.

CROSS-CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE Components:

1. Cognitive

2. Physical

3. Emotional/motivational

6 PROFILES:

1. PROVISIONAL:

   Quite

Language Learning Strategies

2 main groups:

• Direct strategies: Involve use of language (memory, cognitive, compensation)
• Indirect strategies: not directly involve use of language, but support language learning (social, metacognitive, affective)

Memory Strategy

Semantic mapping: connect concepts with key words. Enclose related words in the same field.

Cognitive Strategy

Reasoning deductively, when understanding only a few words of the sentence.

Compensation Strategies

Example: use mime or gestures to describe something without words.

England

Compensation, mime/social strategy, clarify/take risks wisely.

Autonomous Learning

Describes a process in which individuals take the initiative. Diagnose your own learning needs, formulate learning goals, choose and... Continue reading "Effective Language Learning Strategies and Gamification" »

SMART Objectives in Education

What is a SMART Objective?

A SMART objective is a specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound goal set for student learning. Each element is crucial for creating effective learning experiences:

Specific

The objective has to be precise enough to show the learning outcome you want to get with your students.

Measurable

How will you know that your students have achieved the goal? What kind of indicators will I see, hear, or feel by the end of the lesson?

Achievable

The objective can be reached by students taking into consideration time, previous knowledge, and other constraints of the group.

Relevant

The objective has to be meaningful for students and it has to meet, if possible, students’ interests.

Time-Bound

Will... Continue reading "SMART Objectives in Education: A Comprehensive Guide" »

Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986)

Social Cognitive Theory is an interpersonal theory that covers determinants of behavior and processes of behavior change. It posits that behavior, cognitive, personal, and environmental factors interact.

Key Concepts:

• Reciprocal Determinism: Behavior is influenced by and influences personal factors and the environment.
• Personal Factors:
  • Outcome Expectancies: Anticipated effects of a behavior (physical, social, self-evaluative).
  • Self-Efficacy: Belief in one's ability in specific situations (magnitude, strength, generality).
• Environmental Factors: Social and physical conditions.

Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991)

This theory suggests that attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control influence... Continue reading "Psychological Theories of Health Behavior Change" »

Freud's Economic Theory of Psychoanalysis

Freud's economic theory of psychoanalysis posits that psychic energy increases, decreases, moves, or is released and distributed throughout the human psyche, activating its different processes.

Freud's Drive Theory of Psychoanalysis

Freud used the term "drive" to refer to instinctual impulses. These drives are characterized by:

• Source: A bodily organ that produces a drive through an active process. Different sources give rise to different impulses. (Unintegrated impulses manifest in adult subjects as perversions).
• Drive Peremptory: An energetic and motor factor of variable intensity that pushes the body toward satisfaction, which the subject cannot avoid. Its character is psychological rather than biological.

Understanding Affectivity in Child Development

Affectivity in a child's development exhibits several key characteristics:

1. Children are Easily Affected by Events

   Children transition rapidly between emotions, such as laughter and tears. This is due to biological factors, as their nervous system is still developing, and psychological factors, such as selfishness and subjectivism, which hinder their ability to understand different perspectives. Additionally, their intelligence is less developed than an adult's, making it harder to judge situations, and they are constantly encountering new experiences.

2. Moods are Expressed More Intensely

   Children struggle to control their emotions due to a lack of cortical control, reason, and willpower.

3. Pleasure and Pain