Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Social Collectives Shaping Our Actions

Four kinds of social collectives shape our actions:

1. Social Groups
2. Networks
3. Formal Organizations
4. Whole Societies

Social Groups

Primary & Secondary Groups. Group Leadership. Group Conformity. Reference Groups. In & Out Groups. Group Size

Primary Groups

Shapes attitudes, behavior, social identity. “A small social group whose members share personal & lasting relationships” (Cooley)

Conformity is an integral part that ensures group cohesion. Primary groups exert more pressure to conform than secondary groups. Emotional intimacy ensures similar beliefs.

Secondary Groups

Large & impersonal groups whose members pursue a specific goal/activity. Weak emotional ties, typically impersonal (co-workers). Many... Continue reading "Understanding Social Structures: Groups and Networks" »

Freud's Psychogenic Theory

Sigmund Freud, a prominent psychogenic theorist, proposed that the human personality is shaped by three distinct influences:

The Id

• The Id represents the primal drives and impulses of the child.
• It is the only part of the personality that functions at birth.

The Ego

• The Ego develops during infancy and mediates between the Id and the external world.
• It seeks to satisfy the Id's impulses in a socially acceptable manner.

The Superego

• The Superego emerges around the age of 4-5 years.
• It represents the moral conscience and instills a sense of guilt.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism, pioneered by John Watson and B.F. Skinner, emphasizes the study of observable behaviors (stimuli and responses).

Skinner believed that learning occurs through reinforcement... Continue reading "Understanding Human Development: A Comprehensive Guide to Theories and Influences" »

Exclusion and Poverty

Poverty and Inequality

Defining Poverty

Poverty is a complex issue with various dimensions:

• Absolute Poverty: Lack of essential resources to meet basic needs like food, shelter, education, and healthcare.
• Relative Poverty: Having an income level below the societal average, even if basic needs are met.

Measuring Poverty

• Absolute Poverty: Establishing a fixed poverty line applicable to all locations.
• Relative Poverty: Comparing a specific group's income to the rest of the population.

Poverty as a Lack of Ability

Poverty should be viewed as a deprivation of basic abilities, often linked to income. While income is a crucial factor, it's not the sole determinant of one's capabilities.

The Relationship Between Income and Ability

Understanding... Continue reading "Social Exclusion and Poverty: An Abilities-Based Approach" »

Job Analysis

Definition and Approaches

Job analysis is the process of defining a job in terms of its tasks or duties, and the knowledge or skills required to perform them. There are two main approaches to job analysis:

• Job-oriented approaches: These approaches describe the various tasks that are performed in a job.
• Worker-oriented approaches: These approaches examine the broad human behaviors involved in work activities.

KSAOs

KSAOs (knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics) are the attributes required for successful job performance.

Outcomes of Job Analysis

• Job description: A statement of what jobholders do, how they do it, and why.
• Job specifications: A delineation of the KSAOs necessary to perform a job.

Importance of Job Analysis

Job... Continue reading "Job Analysis and Performance Measurement in Industrial Psychology" »

Defining Stress: A Complex Reaction

Stress is a complex series of reactions, both psychological and physical, in response to demanding or threatening situations.

What Are Stressors? Events Causing Demands

Stressors are events that produce physical and psychological demands on a person.

Common Types of Stressors Categorized

Types of stressors include:

• Environmental: Such as heat, noise.
• Physiological: Such as drugs, tobacco.
• Emotional: Such as pressures, life events.

Signs of Being Stressed: Typical Manifestations

Typically, people who are stressed out may show signs such as:

• Eating too much food.
• Abusing substances.
• Having difficulty focusing attention, making decisions, or sleeping.

Key Human Responses to Stress

Responses to stress can be:

• Psychological
• Cognitive
• Emotional
• Behavioral

Selye'

The Four Subfields of Anthropology

The four subfields of anthropology - and how applied anthropology fits in:

1) Biological anthropology

2) Cultural anthropology

3) Linguistic anthropology

4) Archaeology

- Applied anthropology draws on information provided by the other four specialties.

Anthropology: Holistic and Comparative

Athropology as Holistic and Comparitive

Holistic: Anthropologists integrate all that is known about humans and their activities.

Comparative: Anthropologists examine similarities and differences between human societies.

Labwork vs Fieldwork

- Labwork involves spending time in a lab testing and analyzing, 

- Fieldwork typically involves an extended stay with a local community

The Concept of Culture

Culture Concept

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