Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Psychology and Sociology

The Impact of Sets on Human Perception

Definition of a Set

In psychology, a set refers to an expected outcome or frame of reference that influences our perception and behavior.

Sets and Perception

Sets can hinder our ability to detect errors in our own work. For example, if we expect to have written"hous" and it says"hose" we may not notice the misspelling and read it as the intended word.

Sets and Behavior

Sets can also affect our behavior. For instance, if a teacher expects a student to score poorly, they may treat or grade the student differently, leading to lower grades.

Sets and Problem Solving

Sets can influence our problem-solving abilities. If we expect a math problem to be solved in a certain way, we may not consider alternative formulas that... Continue reading "The Impact of Sets on Human Perception, Behavior, and Health" »

The discrimination refers to behaviors directed against another group. For example: Gender discrimination puts women at a disadvantage compared to men in various social situations. In the business market, women receive lower wages than men, for performing the same tasks and having the same qualifications, experience, and training. Women still do most of the housework and it is they who take care of the children and the elderly, so they have little time to look for new job opportunities. And even if they achieve leadership positions, they have to fight more than men to see their work being recognized and valued. Gender discrimination is only one of many forms of negative discrimination and constitutes a violation of human rights.

Organization

Organization is a consciously coordinated social unit, made up of a group of people who work together on common goals on a relatively continuous basis.

1. Individual Differences

People enter groups and organizations with certain characteristics that influence behavior. Perception, Values, Attitudes

2. Job Satisfaction

3. Motivation

4. Empowerment:

Means putting employees in charge of what they do – give them responsibility.

5. Behaving Ethically

Perception

(“the perceiver”) look at a target and attempt to interpret what you see: attitudes, personality, motives, interests, past experiences, and expectations

The target’s characteristics can affect what we perceive: Novelty, motion, sound, size, background, proximity.

The situation: The... Continue reading "Understanding Organization: Individual Differences, Job Satisfaction, Motivation, and More" »

Performance Appraisal Methods:

Traditional methods

-Rating/raking method: it is the oldest oneand the simplest method of appraisal, an employee is compared with all others

-Forced choice method: it contains a series of groups of statements positive and negative, and the rater rates how effectively a statement describes an employee

-Forced distribution method: the rater distributes employees on all points of the scale, based on opinion

-Critical incidents method: it is focused on appraising workers who can perform their jobs effectively in critical situations

-Grading method: it typically uses three categories: outstanding, satisfactory and unsatisfactory ; the employee is evaluated according to the grade that best describes his performance

-Paired... Continue reading "Cpc incidents" »

_{CONFLICT AND SOCIAL CHANGE}

_{SOCIALIZATION:}A process through which the individuals of a society or culture learn and internalize a combination of rules, values, and ways of perceiving reality. It gives individuals the capacities to develop themselves in the social interaction with other individuals.

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

steps:

• Externalization: the social order is a human product for two reasons:

- genesis: the past was constructed by people.

- existence: the current order can only exist if people exist who sustain it.

• Objectivation: process that turns products of human activity in something external of such activity. This process involves:

- Institutionalization: repetition of an action that becomes typical and, through generations, appears as being... Continue reading "Socialization and Social Change: Understanding the Process and Its Impact" »

Social Collectives Shaping Our Actions

Four kinds of social collectives shape our actions:

1. Social Groups
2. Networks
3. Formal Organizations
4. Whole Societies

Social Groups

Primary & Secondary Groups. Group Leadership. Group Conformity. Reference Groups. In & Out Groups. Group Size

Primary Groups

Shapes attitudes, behavior, social identity. “A small social group whose members share personal & lasting relationships” (Cooley)

Conformity is an integral part that ensures group cohesion. Primary groups exert more pressure to conform than secondary groups. Emotional intimacy ensures similar beliefs.

Secondary Groups

Large & impersonal groups whose members pursue a specific goal/activity. Weak emotional ties, typically impersonal (co-workers). Many... Continue reading "Understanding Social Structures: Groups and Networks" »

Freud's Psychogenic Theory

Sigmund Freud, a prominent psychogenic theorist, proposed that the human personality is shaped by three distinct influences:

The Id

• The Id represents the primal drives and impulses of the child.
• It is the only part of the personality that functions at birth.

The Ego

• The Ego develops during infancy and mediates between the Id and the external world.
• It seeks to satisfy the Id's impulses in a socially acceptable manner.

The Superego

• The Superego emerges around the age of 4-5 years.
• It represents the moral conscience and instills a sense of guilt.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism, pioneered by John Watson and B.F. Skinner, emphasizes the study of observable behaviors (stimuli and responses).

Skinner believed that learning occurs through reinforcement... Continue reading "Understanding Human Development: A Comprehensive Guide to Theories and Influences" »

Exclusion and Poverty

Poverty and Inequality

Defining Poverty

Poverty is a complex issue with various dimensions:

• Absolute Poverty: Lack of essential resources to meet basic needs like food, shelter, education, and healthcare.
• Relative Poverty: Having an income level below the societal average, even if basic needs are met.

Measuring Poverty

• Absolute Poverty: Establishing a fixed poverty line applicable to all locations.
• Relative Poverty: Comparing a specific group's income to the rest of the population.

Poverty as a Lack of Ability

Poverty should be viewed as a deprivation of basic abilities, often linked to income. While income is a crucial factor, it's not the sole determinant of one's capabilities.

The Relationship Between Income and Ability

Understanding... Continue reading "Social Exclusion and Poverty: An Abilities-Based Approach" »

Job Analysis

Definition and Approaches

Job analysis is the process of defining a job in terms of its tasks or duties, and the knowledge or skills required to perform them. There are two main approaches to job analysis:

• Job-oriented approaches: These approaches describe the various tasks that are performed in a job.
• Worker-oriented approaches: These approaches examine the broad human behaviors involved in work activities.

KSAOs

KSAOs (knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics) are the attributes required for successful job performance.

Outcomes of Job Analysis

• Job description: A statement of what jobholders do, how they do it, and why.
• Job specifications: A delineation of the KSAOs necessary to perform a job.

Importance of Job Analysis

Job... Continue reading "Job Analysis and Performance Measurement in Industrial Psychology" »

The Four Subfields of Anthropology

The four subfields of anthropology - and how applied anthropology fits in:

1) Biological anthropology

2) Cultural anthropology

3) Linguistic anthropology

4) Archaeology

- Applied anthropology draws on information provided by the other four specialties.

Anthropology: Holistic and Comparative

Athropology as Holistic and Comparitive

Holistic: Anthropologists integrate all that is known about humans and their activities.

Comparative: Anthropologists examine similarities and differences between human societies.

Labwork vs Fieldwork

- Labwork involves spending time in a lab testing and analyzing, 

- Fieldwork typically involves an extended stay with a local community

The Concept of Culture

Culture Concept

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