Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Primary education

Clinical Case Scenarios

• 85 YO Patient: DM/Osteoporosis (B) → Insufficient physical activity. Recommendation: Calcium supplementation.
• 68 YO Patient: (C) → Nitro 100mg x2, T 4mg. (B) → J/UC/CRP/US (Interpretation unclear, likely lab/imaging tests).
• 82 YO Patient: Pneumonia (Pn) + Pyelonephritis (B) → Ceftriaxone 750 mg once.
• 86 YO Patient: C. difficile Treatment (Tx) (D) → Discontinue Ceftriaxone; initiate Vancomycin.
• 84 YO Patient: Fall Prevention in Elderly → Shortest option (Focus on factors other than fatigue or agility).
• Women with Depression → Treatment: CITALOPRAM.

Key Clinical Concepts and Questions

• Gastrointestinal (GI) Changes with Age (D): Decreased salivary gland function, decreased liver size, decreased detoxification potential.

1. Identifying, Listing, and Defining Artistic Proofs

• a. Ethos: Character (past observable behavior, testimony, and credentials)
• b. Pathos: Emotion (we try to hide emotions to make a decision, but it is the most compelling factor)
• c. Logos: Reasoning/logic/coherence (check against pathos and logos)

2. Differentiating Between Mood, Mind, and Action in an Argument

Understanding the distinctions between mood, mind, and action is crucial in crafting persuasive arguments.

3. Identifying the Parts of a Syllogism

• Major premise
• Minor premise
• Conclusion

4. Finding the Major Premise of an Argument Based on the Minor Premise

This involves deductive reasoning to uncover the underlying assumptions of an argument.

5. Defining Key Debate Terms

• Burden of proof: The person

Business Entities and Tax Implications

Taxation of Partnerships

Partnerships are not taxed at the corporate level. Instead, taxes are levied on the individual partners based on their share of the partnership's income.

Taxation of Corporate Entities

Corporations have a separate legal personality and are subject to corporate income tax. Shareholders are also taxed on the dividends they receive.

Justification for Corporate Income Tax

• Avoid tax deferral
• Neutrality
• Incentivize investment

Tax calculation: Tax = Tax Base x Tax Rate

Corporate and Shareholder Tax Systems

Classical System

Corporate profits are taxed at the corporate level, and dividends are taxed again at the shareholder level, resulting in economic double taxation.

Full Integration System

Corporations... Continue reading "Understanding Corporate Taxation: Systems, Distributions, and Debt-Equity Considerations" »

Tax Deductions: An International Comparison

Income Tax Imposition

Income tax is imposed on gross income minus deductible expenditures. Generally, you cannot use expenses from one category of income to offset profits belonging to another. Expenses related to business activity may have specific deductions, while employment income often has standard deductions. Personal expenditures are generally not deductible. Mixed business and personal expenses are generally not deductible unless specific rules apply. For example, the UK does not allow deductions for mixed expenses. However, some countries like Australia, Sweden, and France allow deductions upon apportionment.

Specific Deductible Expenses

Commuting Expenses

Travel from and to work is generally... Continue reading "Tax Deductions and Capitalization: International Comparison" »

Fascism vs. Nazism

Fascism and Nazism are often considered to be the same or at least refer to the same ideologies. However, the two are entirely dissimilar from each other. This is despite the fact that they are both totalitarian ideologies, are closely related in design, and both sprung up after the First World War in Europe.

What is Fascism?

Fascism is defined as a form of radical authoritarian, strict, and controlling ultra-nationalism that is usually characterized by forcibly suppressing an opposition front, assuming dictatorial powers, and strongly regimenting the society and its economy.

Fascism sprung to popularity around the early 20th century during the time of Benito Mussolini. Benito was the Italian leader by the time the ideology was... Continue reading "Fascism and Nazism: Key Differences and History" »

Primo de Rivera

In 1923 another pronunciamiento took place: General Miguel Primo de Rivera came to power with the consent of the king. Public disorder was rampant, and the system wasn't working. Primo de Rivera had been in Catalonia as Captain General. They thought he could bring calm and peace.

Primo de Rivera wanted to regenerate the system and later he would give the power back again. It did not work. He stayed for longer than promised and became unpopular. He tried to start a political party, the Unión Patriótica.

His dictatorship can be divided into two periods: Military Directory (1923-1925) and Civil Directory (1925-1930). He had great success at the beginning. Along with the French, the Spanish Army defeated the Moroccan rebel Abd-el-... Continue reading "The Second Spanish Republic: From Dictatorship to Civil War" »

Revenue and Cost Formulas

• Revenue = Selling price per unit × Number of units sold
• Variable costs = Variable cost per unit × Number of units sold
• Total costs = Fixed costs + Variable costs
• Profit = Total revenue − Total costs or Total contribution − Fixed costs

Market and Investment Metrics

• Market capitalisation = Number of issued shares × Current share price
• Expected value (A & B) = (Pay-off of A × Probability of A) + (Pay-off of B × Probability of B)
• Net gain = Expected value − Initial cost of decision
• Market growth (%) = (Change in market size / Original market size) × 100
• Market share (%) = (Sales of one product or business / Total sales in the market) × 100
• Added value = Sales revenue − Cost of bought-in goods and services

Operational

Pharos

Definition:

An island near Alexandria. On the island was a lighthouse.

Location in texts:

Homer’s Odyssey

Significance/theme:

The lighthouse was a great ancient wonder. It shows the large significance and impact that Alexandria had. It also demonstrates the power of Ptolemy.

Callimachus of Cyrene (c. 310-240 BCE)

Definition:

Callimachus was a famous poet and librarian in Alexandria.

Location in texts:

Callimachus’ Pinakes

Significance/theme:

He was responsible for producing a bibliographic survey based upon the contents of the Library. His work provided the foundation for later work on the history of Greek literature.

Nicander of Colophon (2nd c. BCE)

Definition:

Greek poet, physician, and librarian.

Location in texts:

Nicander’s Theriaka and Alexipharmaka

Significance/