Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Physics

Middle English Pronouns, Verbs, and Lexical Change

2nd Person Forms and Address

2nd p. sg and pl in the Middle English period: Very different depending on whom you were addressing. The upper class used “ye” (plural of politeness), and lower-class speakers also used “ye” to address the upper class. The lower class among themselves used “thou” (singular). The upper class also used it to address the lower class. Objects: “thee” (sg), “you” (pl).

Pronouns and Relative Forms

• Relative pronouns and demonstratives: OE pe / demonstrative + pe.
• 12th century: that appears as a relative/interrogative marker.
• Introduction of wh-relatives and interrogative forms — frequency increases into Modern English.
• One replaces the OE indefinite pronoun

Fundamental Concepts of Energy and Work

• 1. Which of these is measured in joules? Energy
• 2. The two main types of energy discussed: Kinetic & Potential
• 3. The work-energy theorem: The net work done on an object equals the change in its kinetic energy.
• 4. Kinetic energy: The energy of movement.
• 5. The Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
• 6. Potential energy: The energy of position.
• 7. Pendulum potential energy: Highest when at the top of its swing.
• 8. Inelastic collision: A collision where some energy is converted into other forms.
• 9. Chemical energy: Energy stored in chemical bonds.

Machines, Power, and Efficiency

• 6. Which machine has 100% efficiency? No real machine has 100% efficiency.
• 7. Rube Goldberg: Famous

Measurement of Pressure Losses in Pipes

1. Measurement of pressure losses in pipes under pressure can be made with: Piezometers

Flow Number and Linear Losses Factor

2. The flow number a is expressed in units: This value is dimensionless.

3. The linear losses factor f can be determined on the basis of: Relative roughness and Reynolds Number.

Orifice and Pump Head

4. The ISA orifice can be used to measure: Flow rate.

5. The pump head can be determined from: Bernoulli equation.

Absolute Roughness and Outlet Pressure

7. Absolute roughness can be determined: From Colebrook-White's formula.

8. The outlet pressure in the nozzle depends on: Flow rate in the nozzle.

Hydrostatic Pressure and Force

9. The unit of hydrostatic pressure in the SI system: kg/(m*s^2)

10.

Q4) The most widely used equation for estimating visibility is the Koschmeider equation:

                              Lv = 1200 km x µg/m³ / particle concentration

Where Lv is the visual range, the distance at which an average person can barely distinguish a dark object (such as a mountain or skyscraper) against the sky. This equation is an approximation, based on an average set of atmospheric particles.

• In the Grand Canyon and the surrounding area, on clear days, one can easily see mountains 120 miles away. What is the probable concentration of particles in the atmosphere when one can see that far?
• If the particle concentration in the atmosphere is increased by 1.5 µg/m³, what is the percentage decrease in the visual

Verb Alternations in English

The body-part possessor ascension alternation is characterized by a change in the expression of a possessed body part. The possessed body part may be expressed as the direct object of the verb (e.g., Margaret cut Bill’s arm), or the possessor may be expressed as the object of the verb with the possessed body part expressed in a prepositional phrase (e.g., Margaret cut Bill on the arm).

Examples:

• NPagent Verb [NP’s body-part]theme: Margaret cut [Bill’s arm].
• B-p possessor ascension construction: NPagent Verb [NPtheme] [on the body-part]: Margaret cut [Bill] [on the arm].

The body-part possessor ascension requires a sub-event ACT that involves contact. Consequently, "break" verbs typically do not participate in this... Continue reading "Verb Alternations: Body-Part, Causative, and Dative Shifts" »

The morpheme is the smallest, indivisible unit of semantic content or grammatical function from which words are made. Words can be classified into monomorphemic or simplex words ('faith' or 'week') and polymorphemic or complex words ('faithfully' or 'weekly'). 'Faith' and 'week' are free morphemes, while 'faithfully' and 'weekly' are bound morphemes that need to be attached to others. Bound morphemes can be prefixes, suffixes, or infixes.

Free morphemes act as bases to which other morphemes are attached to form derivatives. 'Mother' and 'faith' are examples of simplex bases, while 'faithfulness' is an example of a complex base composed of multiple morphemes.

'Teeth' and 'tables' are examples of nouns in the plural form, with 'tables' showing... Continue reading "Understanding Morphemes: Simplex and Complex Words" »

Simple Machines and Mechanical Advantage

Simple machines are devices that make work easier. They do this by changing the magnitude or direction of a force. Many simple machines are combined to create complex machines.

Wheel and Axle

A wheel is attached to a central axle so that when one turns, the other must turn. A longer motion at the wheel's edge is converted to a shorter, more powerful motion at the axle. Conversely, a short, powerful force at the axle moves the wheel's edge a greater distance.

Pulley System

A single pulley simply reverses the direction of a force. When two or more pulleys are connected together, they permit a heavy load to be lifted with less force. The trade-off is that the rope's end must move a greater distance than the... Continue reading "Simple Machines: A Comprehensive Guide to Mechanical Advantage" »

- Scalars and Vectors

• Scalars require magnitude and unit (distance, time, speed, mass)

• Vectors require magnitude, unit, AND direction (displacement, velocity, acceleration, force)

• Force vectors are drawn with their tails attached to the point of application on the object.

• 1D vectors use right/left, up/down, +/-

• 2D vectors described using angles, measured clockwise and anticlockwise from the vertical and horizontal

- Adding Vectors

• 1D vector: make one direction (up, right) a positive value and the opposite direction (down, left) a negative value, then add them all up.

• 2D vector: draw the first vector in the appropriate direction, then the second vector from the head of the first. Then use a² + b² = c² to find the hypotenuse... Continue reading "Introduction to Motion, Forces, and Momentum in Physics" »

Historical Arguments Regarding Earth's Motion

Centrifugal Force and Structural Integrity

1.1 As a result of this rotation, the Earth would have had to break up many years ago due to centrifugal forces. Since that does not happen, it is argued that the Earth does not move.

Gravity and Vertical Fall Patterns

1.2 Objects would fall "upside down." Nothing would fall in a straight line, contrary to the principles of gravity. However, since this result is false, the Earth does not move.

Atmospheric Observations and Cloud Motion

1.3 If that movement occurred, clouds would always move in the opposite direction. But this does not happen; therefore, the Earth does not move.

The Nature of Celestial and Terrestrial Motion

Natural Movement of Celestial Spheres

2... Continue reading "Scientific Debates on the Rotation of the Earth" »

State the properties of solid state.

^{Ans: Solid has a definite shape, mass, and volume. The matter in its solid-state has the lowest amount of thermal energy as there is no space for the particles to move around. Solid tends to have a great electrical conductivity.}

What is a mixture? Give examples.

^{Ans: A mixture is a substance made by combining two or more different materials in such a way that no chemical reaction occurs. A mixture can usually be separated back into its original components. Some examples of mixtures are a tossed salad, salt water and a mixed bag of M&M's candy.}

What is solubility?

^{Ans: Solubility: The maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a given amount of solvent. The maximum amount of a substance that can be dissolved}