Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Marx's Critique of Political Economy and Ideology

This text serves as a preface to Karl Marx's Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, published in 1889. Political economy is the theoretical analysis of the economic relations of production and the mode of modern society. One of the main objectives of Marx's work was to conduct a critique of political economy as it had developed until his analysis.

Intended as a contribution to the critique of classical political economy, this critique would later find its most rigorous and profound expression in Das Kapital. Indeed, the subtitle of Das Kapital is 'A Critique of Political Economy,' emphasizing the central role of the critique of ideologies.

The concept of ideology and the critique of... Continue reading "Marx's Critique of Ideology: Understanding Social Distortion" »

Deductive, Inductive, and Analogical Reasoning

When we reason, we use two primary methods: deduction and induction.

Deductive Reasoning

If we start from accepted and reliable premises and infer partial conclusions, we use deductive reasoning. Deductive arguments are useful because, if well-constructed, they are necessarily true. Every good argument from premises must be reliable. In deductive reasoning, the question is not whether the premises are true or false, but whether the argument is valid or invalid—that is, whether the conclusion follows from the premises without any doubt.

Inductive Reasoning

Induction, however, starts with a series of specific observations that are repeated regularly. From this series, a general conclusion is drawn.... Continue reading "Deductive, Inductive, Analogical Reasoning & Rawls' Justice" »

Philosophical Realism: Ancient to Modern Eras

In universal philosophy, realism predominated until the modern age, forming a significant block within philosophical thought. The first line of argument stems from the characteristics of philosophical realism, which lasted until the sixteenth century, and its opposition to idealism.

Ancient Philosophy: Cosmos and Essence

From the Pre-Socratics, knowledge was applied to answer the question about the arche of physis—the origin of the cosmos—giving more weight to nature itself than to the subject. This explains the Platonic assertion that man is social by nature. According to ancient philosophy, the cosmos governs all, and its origin must be found. Plato found the answer in the Idea of the Good, stating:... Continue reading "Philosophical Realism: From Ancient Roots to Modern Thought" »

René Descartes' Core Philosophy

Descartes' philosophical system addresses several fundamental areas:

• Methodical Doubt
• The Cartesian Method
• The Interim Morality
• Metaphysics: The Three Substances (Thinking, Infinite, Extended)
• The Relationship of Substances
• Freedom and the Passions

Methodical Doubt

Through methodical doubt, Descartes seeks to find the simplest elements of knowledge—truths that can resist all skepticism. Once these foundational truths are established, he believed one could safely deduce the rest of human knowledge using the appropriate method.

To find these truths, Descartes questioned all accepted knowledge, employing three main arguments:

1. The deception of the senses.
2. The inability to distinguish waking from sleep (the Dream Argument)

Anthropology

Aristotle

Aristotle views man as a being of the physical world. This differs from Plato, for whom there is a large separation between soul and body. When a person dies, he disappears, but the species remains. Aristotle considers the soul in accordance with the species. Each species has a kind of soul that enables a series of functions, which are hierarchical and differentiate us from other species. These functions are three:

• The vegetative function, which is to nurture and reproduce, and is intended for plants.
• The sensory function, which involves movement and feeling and is developed primarily by animals.
• The rational function, which is the search for truth through reason. It is what gives happiness to men.

These functions are in order... Continue reading "Aristotle and Descartes: Contrasting Views on the Human Soul" »

Marx's Humanism: Analysis and Critique of Alienation

To understand Marx's philosophical project and his critique of political economy, we must begin with the idea and importance he attached to humanity.

His critical philosophy was not merely a critique of Left Hegelian philosophers who sought to change reality with words. Marx famously wrote: "The weapon of criticism must be replaced by the criticism of arms." Therefore, criticism must be radical, reaching to humanity itself as the root. Criticism is not confined to theoretical work; it is also an instrument of struggle against the enemies of humanity and exploiters, aiming for the liberation of every individual. For Marx, criticism is revolutionary praxis. (When Marx's daughter asked him to... Continue reading "Marx's Humanism: Alienation and Liberation" »

Cartesian Doubt and Its Underlying Rationale

One of the defining characteristics of Cartesian philosophy is methodical doubt. This rigorous doubt forms the basis of his thought and justifies his method. It's important to note that this isn't skeptical doubt for its own sake; rather, it's a deliberate suspension of previously accepted knowledge for a specific purpose. Descartes establishes three levels of doubt: the level of the senses, the distinction between wakefulness and sleep, and the concept of the "evil genius." All of this is aimed at arriving at certain and indubitable knowledge.

The Unreliability of the Senses

The senses can deceive us, a fact easily observed. We often perceive things differently from how they actually are, such as a... Continue reading "Cartesian Doubt: Unveiling the Foundation of Knowledge" »

What is Meant by Action?

We often perform actions without fully realizing it. An action is a conscious decision we make. It's our intentional behavior.

Involuntary Actions

These actions can be forced upon us, often performed with strength and ignorance due to circumstances.

Voluntary Actions

These actions originate from within the person. They are carried out jointly, sometimes to avoid a greater evil. Strictly speaking, they are conscious and voluntary, though some may be performed out of culpable ignorance.

Elements of Action

Intent

Intent is when we realize something we do routinely.

This can be spontaneous, like hunger, or consciously assumed, like buying a book.

Intentions are consciously accepted inclinations.

Ends and Means

The ends are the desires... Continue reading "Understanding Action, Ethics, and Political Philosophy" »

Machiavelli's Core Political Ideas

Niccolò Machiavelli's seminal work, The Prince, presents a radical departure from traditional political thought. His key ideas include:

1. Many have imagined republics and principalities that have not truly existed.
2. Political ruin stems from failing to distinguish between how one lives and how one should live.
3. One who always strives to be good among so many who are not, will inevitably come to ruin.
4. Therefore, a prince must always act according to necessity.

Author Background: Niccolò Machiavelli

Born in Florence in the fifteenth century, Niccolò Machiavelli participated actively in the politics of his city after the fall of the Medici. He was a quintessential Renaissance man, a humanist, and a politician. Machiavelli... Continue reading "Machiavelli's Political Philosophy: Power and Pragmatism" »

Kant and the Enlightenment

Immanuel Kant is a central figure of the Enlightenment. He defines Enlightenment as achieving maturity. Kant advocates for every human being to use Reason to determine their destiny. Freedom lies in the responsible use of Reason. Freedom, responsibility, and moral autonomy are inseparable from the Enlightenment and Reason.

Kant's Moral Philosophy

Kant seeks to understand the moral being of man. He asks what can be considered inherently good without qualification, which is goodwill.

Key Features of Kantian Ethics

A main feature of Kantian ethics is that the weight of morality is on the intention, not the consequences. Reason, for Kant, requires universality and necessity in both pure (theoretical) and practical (moral)... Continue reading "Kant's Enlightenment Philosophy: Ethics and Morality" »