Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Nietzsche's Will to Power: Core Concepts

Nietzsche, who often seemed to mock all ideals, developed a philosophy whose core tenets, such as the Superman, the Will to Power, and Eternal Recurrence, are prominently featured in his seminal work, Thus Spoke Zarathustra.

The Will as Affirmation and the Superman

The Will is not merely a personal power but the fundamental force from which all things, including human subjects, arise. For Schopenhauer, the Will is desire; for Nietzsche, it is power. This power is also the desire for more, for everything. While power might seem to refer to the self, Nietzsche did not mean it as an individual's personal power or belonging to their own will. Instead, it is a fundamental drive. Zarathustra says, "I love those... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Core Philosophy: Will to Power, Superman, Eternal Recurrence" »

What is an Ethical Theory?

Ethics is the philosophical reflection on morality. Ethical theories provide the rationale for explaining the moral behavior of individuals. These theories represent an effort of thought to understand the human condition and offer a coherent and profound explanation of our actions.

Various Ethical Theories

Ethical theories can be broadly divided into two groups:

• The ethics of conviction: These theories start with the question, "What is the end towards which we direct our actions?" They are interested in the purpose or the consequences that we enjoy if we follow a set of rules.
• Ethics of duty: These ethics do not ask what will make us happy, but what we are obligated to do as human beings endowed with reason. These theories

Vitalism: An Introduction

Vitalism reflects on life in both a biological and biographical sense, encompassing experience and historicism. These philosophies emerged in protest against idealism and positivism, defending irrationality and denying the primacy of reason. They argue that reason cannot grasp true reality. Vitalism posits that:

• Being is absolute and essentially irrational, unknowable by reason alone.
• Claims to know reality solely through reason are absurd, as reality escapes rational thought.

Key figures in Vitalism include Nietzsche, Bergson, and Ortega y Gasset. Vitalism emphasizes that:

1. The vital phenomenon cannot be explained solely by physical-chemical forces.
2. A vital force or "will to power" exists in nature.
3. The study of life encompasses

John Stuart Mill was a key exponent of utilitarianism, building upon the ideas of thinkers like David Hume.

Key Features of Mill's Utilitarianism

• An action is considered good if it promotes collective happiness.
• Mill critiqued monarchies, arguing they don't necessarily lead to collective happiness.
• He also criticized the criminal justice system, deeming it often unfair.
• Mill posited that humans naturally seek pleasure and avoid pain, leading to a 'calculus of pleasures.'
• Politically, Mill believed that collective happiness is the sum of individual happiness. If everyone strives for their own happiness, society as a whole will be happy.

Mill's Ethical Framework

• Happiness is universally recognized as the ultimate ethical goal.
• Happiness equates to pleasure,

The Moral Realm: Understanding Moral Acts

Characteristics and Structures of the Moral Act

Moral acts are acts of humans, but not all acts performed by humans are moral. Examples include sleeping, drinking, and running.

A human act is considered moral if it is performed freely and consciously (voluntarily), if it affects another person (socially), and if it is regulated by moral norms (normative).

If these requirements are not met, the act is considered amoral. For instance, animals and nature have no morality (e.g., earthquakes, dog bites).

Phases of a Moral Act

• Intention or motive that impels one to act
• End or goal to be achieved
• Means used to achieve the intended purpose, which must be appropriate to the nature of the act
• Results
• Implications of this

Ethics: Foundations and Principles

Derived from the Latin mos, moris (custom) and the Greek ethos (custom). The Greeks believed habit and actions define what makes us human.

As a science, ethics involves:

• Theories
• Codes of conduct

Objectives of Ethics:

• Individual happiness
• Societal welfare. This is based on:
  • Ideology, religion, common good
  • Moral Values: Ideal patterns of behavior such as goodness, justice, love, gratitude, peace, equality, and freedom.

The Five Core Rules of Ethical Conduct

1. Do good and avoid evil.
2. Treat others as you want them to treat you.
3. Aid others and accept their help when you need it.
4. Earn your living from your work.
5. Live and let live.

Reason in Ethics and Social Acts

Reason should determine social acts.

Philosophical Views on Reason

• Plato

Plato's Philosophy: A Journey into the World of Ideas

The Context: Athens in the Time of Pericles

During the period of 492-479 BC, Athens emerged as a powerful force after the Greco-Persian Wars. This newfound power led to a surge in Athenian nationalism and political engagement. The Sophists emerged as paid teachers, offering instruction in rhetoric and political strategy. They emphasized the art of persuasion and achieving political victory, often embracing relativism and skepticism regarding truth and justice. Socrates, in contrast, believed in absolute values and challenged the Sophists' relativistic views, considering them a corrupting influence on philosophy.

Socrates vs. the Sophists: A Clash of Ideologies

The clash between Socrates and... Continue reading "Plato's Philosophy: Ideas, Justice, and the Ideal City" »

Hypothetical-Deductive Method

The hypothetical-deductive method is a three-tier structure:

• Protocol Statements: These express world phenomena capable of being objective and communicable empirically. Statements are established unambiguously.
• Laws: Universal statements that express the behavior or the relationship of a certain phenomenon regularly and invariably.
• Theories: Universal statements from which all the laws of a particular science can be derived.

Steps of the Hypothetical-Deductive Method

1. Starting Point: A problem is detected by observation or experimentation that is not yet resolved.
2. One or several hypotheses are produced to explain the observed fact or detected problem.
3. The hypothesis is formulated mathematically, and testable implications

Zarathustra's Message

1. Will to Power

Nietzsche tried to compensate for his poor health with a strong will to live. For Nietzsche, the world, man, and life are will to power. His will to power is the willingness to be more, live longer, and, if surpassed, will ultimately create. He became increasingly interested in moral values, so his will to power is a will to create new values, ranging totally against the traditional vitalist values. Nietzsche is a philosopher; the only thing for him is his life, a finite life.

2. Eternal Return

This is the main theme of Zarathustra. The real world is our world; if the world had a purpose or an end state, we would have achieved it. Those who defend the existence of an earthly world and give us hope are nothing... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: Will to Power, Eternal Return" »

1. The Traumatized Motorcyclist

1.1 The Incident

The protagonist, a motorcycle enthusiast, is traumatized by the loss of his beloved machine, a possession that took him four years to acquire due to his aversion to debt and distrust of lending institutions. He firmly believes that motorcycles possess unique personalities and express moods, a conviction that clashes with the perspectives of psychologists and their scientific discourse.

1.2 Verb Analysis

a) could, wanted, knew, went out, remain, stay, am, buy, would say
b) Imperfect Indicative: could, wanted, knew, went out
Simple Conditional: would say
Present Indicative: remain, stay, am, buy, can

1.3 Clashing Perspectives

From a conventional standpoint, psychologists, in their denial of motorcycles