Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Freedom of the Will in Kantian Philosophy

For Kant, freedom is one of the defining qualities of the human being. As articulated in the Critique of Practical Reason, it is one of the fundamental principles necessary to establish morality. If human beings were not free, it would not be possible to speak of moral or immoral behavior.

Only those who can act freely are responsible, transcending sensible inclinations which, as such, are subject to the inexorable laws of nature. For Kant, freedom is the human capacity to decide, taking into account the rational dimension. The central question Kant addresses (in this work and generally) is precisely whether human freedom is compatible with the idea of necessity governing history, thus combining necessity... Continue reading "Kantian Freedom, Morality, and the Necessity of History" »

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche: Life and Philosophy

Born on October 15, 1844, in Prussia, Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche passed away in August 1900. In philosophical manuals, he is recognized for introducing a concept he termed vitalism (philosophy of life). His unique character significantly influenced the history of philosophy.

Following the death of his father, Nietzsche grew up in a predominantly feminine environment. At age 14, he began studying classical philology, and by 25, he was already a Professor of Philosophy at the University of Basel. An accident during his time in the army left him with chronic migraines for the rest of his life.

Nietzsche's Philosophy: The Noon of Zarathustra

His seminal work, Thus Spoke Zarathustra, is presented as... Continue reading "Friedrich Nietzsche's Core Philosophy: Superman, Will to Power, Eternal Recurrence" »

Political Theory of the Modern State

Medieval political thought was modernized and adapted to the new scenario. The political theory of the modern state does not ignore the moral and theological components characteristic of the Middle Ages.

Machiavelli's work on ethical considerations about such things as legitimate power and good governance gives way to the stark description of the mechanisms of politics. We found two different perspectives: one ethical, centered on the origin, nature, and limits of political power; the other, more empirical, descriptive, and innovative, focused on what is portrayed and how it works.

Legitimate and Sovereign Power

The theory of power in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries is very rich. This results in the... Continue reading "Modern State Political Theory: Power and Legitimacy" »

Comparison of Nietzsche and Ortega y Gasset

If we compare Nietzsche and Ortega y Gasset, the context is crucial, as they belong to the same period:

• Ortega would agree with Nietzsche that life is the central concept upon which all philosophical reflection is based. The fundamental reality is life; the reality of every individual is their life.
• However, Ortega believed that explaining life as a mere "will to power" is a reductionism that excludes much of what constitutes human life, such as history, projects, desires, and so on.

Comparison of Descartes and Ortega y Gasset

If we compare Descartes and Ortega y Gasset, we can highlight the following:

• Ortega criticizes Descartes for attempting to reduce reason to mathematics, which prevents it from providing

Absolute

Absolute, as traditionally understood in philosophy, is that which exists by itself and does not need or depend on anything else. When referring to truth, it means complete and total truth.

Abstract and Abstraction

Abstract, etymologically, means to extract or to get something from something else. More rigorously, abstraction means the process by which the understanding obtains (extracts) the universal concept from the sensory image, which is particular and specific. The concept of 'home' is universal because it applies to all objects called "home," which share common characteristics. The image of a "home" is unique because it refers only to a specific house.

For Ortega, the "I" is a concrete reality, mobile and plural. All knowledge that... Continue reading "Key Philosophical Concepts: Absolute to Culture" »

Definitions

Universe

All that exists, apart from which there is nothing.

Scientific Paradigm

A model of the scientific worldview that predominates in each historical stage.

Nature

The set of realities that form the entire universe, excluding anything artificially produced by humans.

Principle

The start, beginning, or cause from which something originates.

Hypothesis

A supposition or tentative scientific explanation proposed to interpret or provide solutions to certain facts.

Postulate

An unprovable proposition whose truth is accepted provisionally as a starting point for studying a problem when an absolutely true starting point cannot be found.

Define

Determining what something is by extracting the common characteristics of all individuals within the same... Continue reading "Exploring Key Concepts: Universe, Nature, and Reality" »

Mutual vs. Commercial Insurance Contracts

According to Article 124 of the Commercial Code (C. Com), mutual insurance companies, fire tontines, life combinations to assist the elderly, and any other class, are considered businesses and remain subject to the provisions of this Code when engaged in acts of foreign trade to the mutual fund or corporation, thereby becoming a fixed premium entity. This section highlights the difference between insurance contracts entered into with a public limited company (SA) and those concluded with mutual organizations.

It is crucial to distinguish between fixed premium mutuals and variable premium mutuals. These represent different social forms, primarily based on mutual responsibility:

• In the first case (fixed

Immanuel Kant: Practical Moral Philosophy

Immanuel Kant, an Enlightenment philosopher, sought to define the limits of human knowledge. While his overall philosophy is extensive, this discussion focuses specifically on his practical morality.

The Kantian Moral Law and the Categorical Imperative

For Kant, the moral law is practical and necessary. It is fundamentally formulated through the Categorical Imperative, often stated in variations such as: "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law."

Distinction Between Types of Morality

Kant distinguishes between two primary types of morality:

1. Material Morality (Heteronomous Ethics)

• It is heteronomous. The will is moved to act by something

The central theme of this text is the path of knowledge that Plato calls "dialectic," as described in the allegory of the cave. This allegory presents humans chained inside a cave, confused in a world of appearances and shadows, with their ignorance interpreted as true reality. However, humans are called out of the cave into the light to know the real world, free from the shackles of prejudice and ignorance. To achieve this, the human soul possesses the power of intelligence, which allows us to rise on the path of knowledge. This path is difficult because, although the soul aspires to break free of customs, beliefs, and prejudices, at the end of this road, one finds true reality, the idea of goodness, just as the sun illuminates all intellectual... Continue reading "Plato's Cave Allegory: Understanding the Ascent to True Knowledge" »

Aristotle's Logic

3. Logic. Aristotle is credited with creating logic as a tool for scientific inquiry. He demonstrated that in science, problems are resolved by navigating between the singular and the multiple, the universal and the particular.

The syllogism expresses a relationship that illustrates how the universal applies to the particular. For example: "Every man is mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal."

• Induction (Inverse Process): If we know all particular cases and arrive at a general conclusion, the induction is complete. Example: Men, horses, and mules live long, and they are animals without gallbladders; therefore, animals without gallbladders are long-lived.

We possess scientific knowledge if we know: that something... Continue reading "Aristotle's Metaphysics and Logic: Understanding Being" »