Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Understanding Ethics

Ethics deals with fundamental questions about what constitutes "good" and "bad," as well as concepts of duty, obligation, and moral responsibility.

Key Divisions of Philosophy

• Problems of Knowledge: This division includes Logic and Epistemology (the study of knowledge itself).
• Problems of the Self: Encompasses Cosmology (the study of the universe), Anthropology (the study of humanity), and Metaphysics (the study of fundamental reality).
• Problems of Value: Involves Ethics and Axiology (the study of values).

Ethics and Related Fields of Study

Ethics is interconnected with various disciplines, including:

• Anthropology
• Psychology
• Sociology
• Economics
• Politics
• Law

The Moral Dimension

The moral dimension refers to the set of codes that govern... Continue reading "Ethics and Moral Philosophy Fundamentals" »

Moral Action and Human Responsibility

We engage in moral action when we imagine different possibilities with varying consequences, are compelled to choose, and subsequently justify our decision as rational human beings. These three stages—imagining possibilities, making a choice, and justifying that choice—constitute the fundamental moral structure. A person is considered amoral when they are the master of their actions but lack responsibility, akin to animals.

Forging Character: Moral and Ethical Being

Moral and ethical character, also known as "custom," is something people forge. While we are born with a temperament, spirit, and a character shaped by nature and society, we can acquire a new character by choosing properties that improve us.... Continue reading "Understanding Moral Action, Character Development, and Conscience" »

Plato's Republic: Building the Just City (367e-376e)

Socrates proposes investigating social justice and individual justice by witnessing the spectacle of a city's birth, observing how justice and injustice might arise within it.

The Necessary City: Meeting Basic Needs

The city originates from the lack of individual self-sufficiency. To meet basic needs—food, shelter, and clothing—the city will require:

• Farmers
• Masons
• Weavers
• Shoemakers

The different natural abilities of individuals suggest applying the principle of functional specialization to increase productivity and improve product quality. To provide tools and materials, the city will also need carpenters, blacksmiths, cattlemen, and shepherds. Lack of self-sufficiency will necessitate traders... Continue reading "Plato's Republic: Justice in the Ideal City and Soul" »

The Essence of Freedom and Human Will

Freedom is the condition most precious to humankind, a feature that sets it apart from other beings in nature. In the words of E. Rabier, "...men believe in their freedom and were attributed, rightly or wrongly, the power to choose among several resolutions..." This experience we all share is closely linked to the exercise of our will. It is through the voluntary act that humans truly exercise and practice freedom. Freedom is thus a positive force, a new and creative way to engage with the world in which we actively participate. It is humankind's unique privilege to achieve a wonderful synthesis, allowing us to be placed in the dynamic harmony of governing laws.

Freedom in Society: Limitations and Shared

Ethics: Duty vs. Happiness

Immanuel Kant was a renowned philosopher who significantly shifted philosophical thought, influencing many authors after him. This analysis reflects on his ethical duty compared with the ideas of earlier authors.

Kant's Categorical Imperative

Kant aimed to develop a unique ethical framework applicable universally, enabling the distinction between right and wrong in any situation. According to Kant, theoretical reason makes judgments against practical reason, which are mandatory. These form the pillars of ethics, devoid of empirical content because experience does not provide universal knowledge. These principles originate from our being a priori. Kant distinguishes between categorical and hypothetical imperatives. Categorical... Continue reading "Kant's Duty Ethics Versus Aristotle and Epicurus" »

Understanding Anthropological Dualism

3-Dualism Anthropological.

It consists of the separation of the human mind and body. The debate has been kept alive since ancient times until today, often referred to as the soul-body duality. Even Plato said that the body is the prison of the soul.

If we conform to peek at this issue only in its modern approach, we note that the conception of humanity becomes a major problem, especially with all those metaphysical conceptions that are based on a split reality into two radically different classes of substances:

The extent or physical substance, conceived from mathematics and entirely governed by the laws of mechanics.

The thought or psychic reality, conceived from logic and one which has no place in the book.... Continue reading "Understanding Anthropological Dualism: Mind and Body" »

Historical Context

Karl Marx emerged during the Industrial Revolution and the social struggles of the 19th century. He adopted the Hegelian view of history as a process of reality, affirmation, denial, and self-improvement. Marx asserted that the true subject of history is not the spirit but the flesh-and-blood human being who produces their own life and social existence through labor in relation to nature. Marx envisioned a classless society where individuals are truly free, masters of their own work and being. To achieve this, Marx analyzed capitalism, where private ownership dominates, and proposed a workers' revolution to establish an egalitarian society. He envisioned a community forming a classless society, moving beyond the class structures... Continue reading "Karl Marx's Philosophy: Class Struggle, Alienation, and Capitalism" »

Saint Augustine: Faith, Reason, and the Search for Truth

Born on November 13, 354, in Tagaste and died in 430, Saint Augustine believed that the full truth resides in Christianity. However, he acknowledged that before the rise of Christianity, philosophers also possessed some truths inspired by God. Saint Augustine, therefore, utilized some Greek concepts. In his thought, there is a significant influence of Platonism and Neoplatonism.

The Search for Truth

For Saint Augustine, there is no conflict between faith and reason; he considered them complementary. He criticized skepticism by asserting the necessary certainty of one's existence, stating that even if all our opinions were always wrong, we still exist. This implies that we also know because... Continue reading "Saint Augustine: Philosophy of Faith and Reason" »

Immanuel Kant: Synthesis and Influence

Kant is undoubtedly the greatest eighteenth-century German philosopher and one of the most enthusiastic proponents of the Enlightenment. From a strictly philosophical point of view, this included the daunting task of criticism that Kant undertook, subjecting theoretical reason and practical reason to rigorous scrutiny. As a result, he brought a dazzling synthesis of rationalism and empiricism concerning theoretical reason, and a new ethical theory, formalism, which broke with all previous approaches. As if this were not enough, Kant connects both forms of reason in the Critique of Judgment, which studies the nature and purpose of aesthetic judgments. Such contributions have exerted a considerable influence... Continue reading "Kant and Marx: Philosophical Legacies" »

Nietzsche's Theory of Moral Origins

Friedrich Nietzsche's theory posits that moral values originate from resentment, a reaction by the weak against the strong. Unable to create their own values, the weak deny the values of the noble, those capable of genuine creation. This resentment, rather than an inability to create, fuels the reactive process that gives rise to what Nietzsche terms "slave morality". It's not a lack of capacity, but a reactive force.

The Relevance of Nietzsche's Ideas Today

Nietzsche's text offers a valuable interpretation of our understanding of moral values. It prompts reflection on two key points:

• To what extent does theorizing about morality console us for our inability to live creatively in a world of changing values?