Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Descartes: The Method

Descartes' problem was the worry about the merits of the many mistakes regarding knowledge. He recognized that over the centuries, many mistakes had been presented and defended as unquestionable truths. If human reason was a valuable and effective tool, why could science and the philosophy of science not advance? Descartes thought that a method had enabled him to find safety in knowledge, but philosophy lacked a proper method. The mathematical method introduced here gives human reason a definitive criterion of truth. According to Galileo, mathematics is seen as a rational science that brings order to the chaos of data. Descartes was convinced that, just as geometers could make things easier from the more complex without... Continue reading "Descartes' Method: Doubt, the Self, God, and the World" »

The need to understand the world and its meaning is a fundamental human characteristic. Throughout history, philosophers and cultures have constructed systems and models to explain reality, seeking a rational understanding of what is. A key distinction lies between appearance and reality. Our ways of knowing are limited, and the data we receive is processed by our brains. For many philosophers, reality is hidden behind appearances; what we perceive is merely a representation of what is truly real.

We must consider the complexity of the world, which includes not only the physical and objective but also the psychic and even the spiritual. Matter is what things are made of, perceived by the senses, and remains despite changes. Materialistic theories... Continue reading "Understanding Reality: Essence, Existence, and Truth" »

Concept of Being

Being is the most abstract and general concept, designating the existence of something. Ontology, a branch of philosophy, studies being in its generality and abstraction, dealing not only with being itself but also with all entities.

The Body

The body is that which exists, what we can understand and know. A classification of being includes ideal objects and real objects.

Real and Ideal Objects

Real objects are tangible things like the moon or a tree. Ideal objects are abstract concepts like numbers, triangles, or circles.

Gnoseology (Epistemology)

Gnoseology studies the acts of knowledge, exploring the sources and methods of acquiring knowledge.

Idealist and Materialist Views

Idealists believe knowledge is primary and gives rise to... Continue reading "Exploration of Being, Knowledge, and Existence in Philosophy" »

Enlightenment: *Sapere Aude*

The Core Idea of Enlightenment

The central theme of the Enlightenment is encapsulated in the Latin phrase, *Sapere Aude*! (Dare to use your own intelligence!). Enlightenment signifies humanity's departure from self-imposed immaturity. It is the liberation of one's reason from external control and the courage to think independently.

Obstacles to Enlightenment

Several factors hinder the path to Enlightenment:

• Laziness and Cowardice: These traits prevent individuals from embracing intellectual freedom and relying on their own judgment.
• The Comfort of Guidance: While nature has endowed us with the capacity for reason, many remain in a state of immaturity due to laziness and cowardice. It is more comfortable and less risky

Instructional Texts: A Comprehensive Overview

Instructional texts describe, step-by-step, directions to perform a necessary action. These texts are used for giving orders, rules, warnings, or advice.

Structure of Instructional Texts

The structure of an instructional text usually consists of two parts: the objective and the instructions.

Language Characteristics

The language of an instructional text features clear and precise vocabulary, use of the imperative mood, and a prevalence of simple sentences.

Pronouns: A Detailed Explanation

Pronouns are words that replace a noun. Personal pronouns serve to indicate the grammatical persons involved in communication. Forms of demonstrative pronouns, possessive pronouns, indefinite pronouns, numeral pronouns,

Naples 1224-1274

The 13th century in Western thought was largely shaped by Platonic philosophy. Existing authors contributed to this influence, compounded by a lack of access to the complete works of Aristotle; primarily, only his logical treatises were known. The 13th century marked the rediscovery of Aristotelian philosophy. The arrival of Aristotelianism in Europe created a shock and upheaval. Despite resistance to this new wave of thought, Thomas Aquinas sought to assimilate it.

Aristotelianism reached the West following the decline of the Roman Empire and the loss of many classical texts. It was retrieved through the expanding Arab Empire. Arab scholars collected and translated Aristotle's works into Arabic, often adding their own commentaries... Continue reading "The Apogee of Saint Thomas Aquinas and Scholasticism" »

Rationalism: Reason as the Source of Knowledge

Rationalism asserts absolute confidence in human reason. Key aspects include the source and ideal of knowledge.

Source of Knowledge

Rationalists argue that the primary source of valid knowledge is reason itself, particularly through innate ideas.

Sensory experience is often considered confusing and unreliable for true knowledge.

Scientific knowledge is identified with rational knowledge.

Ideal of Knowledge

The ideal is a deductive system, analogous to mathematics, where truths can be deduced from fundamental principles.

Rationalists propose foundational principles not derived from experience but innate to reason.

Mathematics serves as a model for how reason can expand understanding of reality.

The Role of

Contemporary Liberalism and Theories of Justice

All liberal theories of justice maintain that it is necessary to uphold pluralism in society, both philosophical and religious.

Propertarian Liberalism

Propertarian liberalism argues that a just society should not allow individuals to be deprived of what they legitimately own. Robert Nozick, in Anarchy, State, and Utopia, builds upon the idea of natural rights, recognizing the right to property.

Social Liberalism

Social liberalism posits that a just society treats its members with equal respect and consideration. John Rawls's Theory of Justice exemplifies this view.

Mixed Theory: Complex Equality

Michael Walzer, in Spheres of Justice, argues that justice involves a commitment to equality, meaning the... Continue reading "Liberalism, Justice, and Human Rights: Core Concepts" »

Understanding Different Forms of Knowledge

Vulgar (Common) Knowledge

Acquired through personal experience. It is:

• Private
• Subjective
• Lacking a formal method or theory
• Transferable
• Very useful

Scientific Knowledge

Logical, interrelated knowledge that is:

• Transmissible
• Universal
• Systematic
• Theoretical

Religious Knowledge

Attempts to explain phenomena, such as the origin of the universe, through faith. It aims to direct humanity's happiness through faith.

Philosophical Knowledge

Provides understanding about ourselves and the universe; it encourages human life and critical thinking.

Comparing Philosophy, Science, and Religion

Science studies a specific part of reality, while philosophy studies that reality as a whole, including individual perception. While science... Continue reading "The Nature of Knowledge & Philosophical Thinking" »

Concept and Types of Substance

Three realms have discovered reality: God, or the infinite and true; I, or the thinking thing; and material things. Infinite substance, thoughtful and extensive. "Substance" is only applicable to God, but it can be applied to other beings that we perceive clearly and distinctly and that do not need anything else, except God, to exist. How do we perceive substance? By perceiving attributes, qualities of the substance that cannot exist by themselves, and each substance has its own essence. Res cogitans (thinking substance): thought; Res extensa (extended substance): extension.

Demonstration of the Existence of God

Causation argument applied to the idea of Infinite God:

1. Theory of the objective reality of ideas.
2. From nothing,