Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Plato's Two Realms of Reality

Sensible World vs. World of Ideas

On the other hand, we find the sensible reality, which is, as stated above, subject to change, mobility, generation, and corruption. Although its degree of reality cannot be compared to that of the Ideas (sensible things are not truly real), it is consistent and cannot be deemed nothing, unlike what Parmenides argued.

Overcoming Relativism and Ignorance

With this theory, the Athenian philosopher was able to overcome the moral relativism of the Sophists (whom, like his teacher Socrates, he sought to prove wrong, arguing that virtue is founded on knowledge, the so-called moral intellectualism). Similarly, the impossibility of scientific knowledge is surpassed. Science cannot be based... Continue reading "Plato's Theory of Forms and Knowledge" »

Marx's Theory of Alienation

The Concept of Alienation

Alienation, from the Latin "alienus" (meaning foreign), describes the circumstances of a person who is not in control of themselves, and is not ultimately responsible for their actions or thoughts. This individual's way of being transforms into something alien. Marx inherited this concept from Hegel and Feuerbach, distinguishing several types:

• Economic Alienation: Occurs in paid work. The worker suffers an expropriation of the fruits of their labor, and ultimately, of themself, by the capitalist. The worker becomes a commodity, exchanged for funds necessary for survival.
• Legal-Political Alienation: Occurs when the individual surrenders their freedom to the State, trusting it as a superior institution

Fundamentals of Argumentative Texts

An argumentative text advocates an idea by providing a set of reasons for it. It seeks to alter the opinion of a recipient, reinforce their existing beliefs, or achieve their adherence to a specific viewpoint. Success is based on the effectiveness of the arguments presented.

Argumentation vs. Persuasion

Argumentation and persuasion base their explanations and reasoning on proof, logic, and rational argument. Argumentation tries to be objective, while persuasion leans toward the subjective. When the text is developed for use in the media, the two are often intertwined.

Organization and Content Structure

General Organization of Argumentation

Argumentative texts are generally organized into three structural parts:... Continue reading "Mastering Argumentative Text Structure and Coherence" »

Philosophical Conceptions of Humanity

Humans have always pondered their existence, developing explanations of reality through social organization, religion, art, and philosophy. Philosophical anthropology addresses these fundamental questions about human nature.

Autobiographical vs. Systematic Philosophy

Autobiographical philosophy represents individual thinkers' efforts to explore these questions, while systematic philosophy offers universal theories.

Autobiographical Theories on Humans

Religious theories are based on faith and personal experiences, such as the Genesis account of God creating humans in His image. Philosophical theories, on the other hand, rely on reason and claim universal validity.

Key Aspects of Human Existence

• Rational Beings:

Understanding Self-Knowledge

Self-knowledge means being aware of one's existence. This includes:

• Conception as a subject: a feeling person.
• Knowing our purpose in the world, our role, and our relationship with other people and things.
• Awareness of one's uniqueness: qualities, talents, skills, weaknesses, limitations, etc.

The Process of Socialization

Socialization is the process through which individuals integrate into the concrete forms of coexistence within their society, internalizing its values, norms, customs, and culture.

Fundamental Human Questions

Humanity grapples with profound questions:

• Who we are: On one hand, we perceive ourselves as both unlimited and finite beings, unfinished and unsatisfied. On the other hand, we harbor infinite desires,

David Hume (an 18th-century Scottish philosopher) studied law at Trinity College. He later moved to Paris and met Rousseau.

Hume's text discusses human perceptions. He makes several key points:

1. There are two types of perceptions: impressions and ideas. Impressions are immediate and leave a strong mark.
2. The difference between impressions and ideas lies in their intensity. Impressions are stronger than ideas (ideas are reflections of impressions). This is because impressions are immediate and instant, while ideas are formed later.
3. The difference between an impression and an idea is the same as the difference between feeling and thinking.
4. Another distinction can be made based on complexity: simple and complex perceptions. Simple perceptions are unique,

The Dawn of Athenian Democracy: Historical Context

1. The Humanist Turn

• Historical and Political Factors: Pericles implemented significant political reforms, paving the way for democracy and abolishing the privileges of the old aristocracy and oligarchs. This democratic transformation experienced both its zenith and its decline. Athens faced both internal and external adversaries.
  • External Enemies: Sparta and the Spartan aristocracy, leading to the Peloponnesian War and the eventual defeat of Athens.
  • Internal Enemies: The aristocrats, initially accepting of reforms, but quickly became critical of the new political system, seeking to regain their former power.
• Social and Economic Factors: Greek society transitioned into an urban one, reliant on slave

Interpretations on the Limits of Knowledge

Epistemological Realism vs. Transcendental Idealism

One interpretation of knowledge posits that objects exist as they are, independent of our mental experience. Proponents of this view are known as epistemological realists. In contrast, transcendental idealists argue that while objects exist outside our minds, we can never know them as they are in and of themselves. Our knowledge is fundamentally determined by our sensory organs and cognitive faculties. This view maintains that we cannot know reality as it is in itself, but only as it appears to us. Therefore, what we know depends largely on our own cognitive structure.

Kant's Transcendental Idealism

Immanuel Kant was the most important proponent of transcendental... Continue reading "Kant's Theory of Knowledge: Phenomena and Noumena" »

Rousseau's Stages of Human Evolution

Rousseau proposed two stages in human evolution:

• State of nature: Individuals live happily and freely, isolated within families.
• State of civilization (social): Humans become evil, selfish, vain, and superficial.

Hobbes' View on Human Nature

Hobbes believed that humans are sociable by nature, a concept opposite to Rousseau's. Human nature is driven by the desire for power, fame, and selfishness.

Hobbes advocated for the necessity of state and society to ensure individual safety.

Kant's Perspective

Kant represents the pinnacle of modern thought. Influenced by Rousseau, he affirmed the dignity and rights of human beings.

Kant believed in two opposing dimensions: natural and rational, with the latter dominating the... Continue reading "Human Nature: Rousseau, Hobbes, Kant, Freud & Marx" »