Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Mutationism Theory

Mutationism theory posits that evolution can occur not only through gradual, continuous changes but also through rapid, sharp, and discontinuous variations.

The Synthetic Theory of Evolution

Today, some historical perspectives suggested that variations pursued a given plan, explaining a form of finalism governing life and its progressive evolution. However, the currently accepted theory is the Synthetic Theory of Evolution. This theory synthesizes evidence from natural selection and modern genetics (including mutationism). Its foundations lie in paleontology, geology, systematics, genetics, and ecology. Key contributors include T.H. Dobzhansky and M. Kimura.

Evidence for Evolution

Evidence demonstrating evolution includes: paleontological,... Continue reading "Understanding Evolution: Theories & Proof" »

The Scientific Method and Its Limits

Scientific Language

Compare these two statements:

• Things fall to the ground.
• Every object is attracted to Earth by a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses.

Science creates an artificial language to ensure the objectivity and accuracy of its concepts, laws, and theories.

• Concepts: These are the specific terms of each science. There are three types: classificatory, comparative, and metric.
• Laws: These are basic statements of scientific knowledge, characterized by using concepts and identifying universal regularities.
• Theories: Science seeks to explain areas of reality as broadly as possible. Compact systems of interconnected laws are called scientific theories.

Scientific Explanations

A... Continue reading "The Scientific Method: Principles, Language, and Reasoning" »

Epistemology: Understanding the Nature of Knowledge

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the analysis of what knowledge is. It also determines its origin, the method we follow to obtain it, and what we know. Interest in knowledge has been constant throughout the history of thought. However, this issue became even more important, and epistemology stepped into the center of philosophical reflection. This was due to two reasons:

• The importance of the natural sciences: Physics reached, with Isaac Newton, its maturity as a science. Success and encouraging progress prompted epistemological analysis of this type of knowledge, in order to determine what made possible its effectiveness and infallibility.
• Awareness of its basic dimensions:

Plato: Athenian Philosopher and Political Thinker

Biographical Journey

Descended from an aristocratic family, Plato was born in Athens in 427 BC. He began his philosophical journey influenced by Heraclitus, through Cratylus, but the defining event that marked his life and writing style was his encounter with Socrates.

After the death of his master, Socrates, Plato left Athens, traveling first to Megara and later, around 388 BC, to southern Italy. There, in Taranto, he met the Pythagorean Archytas, whose influence significantly shaped Plato's doctrine. Deeply affected by the unjust conviction and execution of Socrates, Plato decided to abandon practical politics.

Upon returning to Athens, Plato wished to repay Anniceris for ransom money (likely... Continue reading "Plato: Life, Political Philosophy, and the Ideal State" »

Nietzsche: A Life of Contrast

The Tension Between Life and Philosophy

Friedrich Nietzsche's life and works are marked by a stark contrast, reflecting the tension between a man plagued by illness and his philosophy exalting life. This discrepancy is striking: one of the most profound thinkers of his time is also responsible for some of history's most radical irrationalism.

Early Life and Academic Career

Born in Röcken, Germany, the son of a Protestant pastor, Nietzsche excelled academically and displayed a character that set him apart from his peers. Severe headaches began in his youth, foreshadowing the mental illness that would later consume him. In 1864, he began studying theology and classical philology. Four years later, fascinated by Wagner'... Continue reading "Nietzsche: Life, Works, and Philosophical Stages" »

Values

The concept of value originates from economics and refers to objects, situations, qualities, or ideas that are generally appreciated or esteemed. The value of something is what makes it desirable or useful. Values guide our actions and are present in every human activity, acting as a beacon that attracts and invites us to orient ourselves. They represent aspirations or desires, something worthy of being achieved, either personally or collectively. Values give meaning to life and evoke strong emotions.

Characteristics of Values

• Important: They guide our behavior, making us prefer some things over others (e.g., choosing between a canteen and gold).
• Transcendent: They are not inherent in objects or facts but are added from the outside, which

Doubt

There are different ways of referring to the questions proposed by Descartes (check the class book); the most common references are to "hyperbolic doubt" or "methodical doubt." All mean the same: we doubt everything that is possible and then consider it false.

Metaphysical meditations are perhaps the clearest attempt to implement Cartesian doubt. We see it.

When does a man start wandering? From a young age. The boy is an imperfect man, lacking what characterizes the man of reason, which has been imposed.

Admittedly, we were wrong; we are sick of our own opinions. What is the first step to cure a disease? Well, the first step is to meditate and radicalize the doubt!

General Rule:

WHAT ALL THE THINGS THAT MAY BE CONSIDERED FALSE: HYPERBOLIC DOUBT.... Continue reading "Descartes' Doubt and the Cogito: Foundations of Knowledge" »

Key Concepts in Ortega y Gasset's Philosophy

Ideas

One of the two main contributions of Ortega's philosophical doctrine (the other being beliefs). Ideas are thoughts that humans specifically construct. We are not inseparably connected with them (as with beliefs), so we can formulate, discuss, and refute them. Ideas are the tools by which philosophical creation advances.

Razón Vital (Vital Reason)

An instance that can grasp, as it is, the concrete reality that is human life (the existence of each individual). Abstract reason, which traditional rationalism proclaims, necessarily fails to address the instability, temporality, and historicity of human life. This is why Ortega claimed a specific razón that meets the special features of that reality:... Continue reading "Ortega y Gasset's Philosophy: Key Concepts" »

Descartes' Relationship with Other Authors

Descartes' philosophy is deeply intertwined with the ideas of other thinkers. He first engages with Plato, both embracing and rejecting aspects of his thought. Descartes distrusts the senses and conceives that all knowledge is based on reason, echoing Plato's rationalism.

A second major influence stems from medieval philosophy, particularly as questioned by Descartes. Educated at the College of La Flèche, he felt his work was influenced by figures like St. Augustine. The famous 'cogito' argument ('If I am mistaken, then I am') bears resemblance to Augustine's thought.

Other issues in Descartes' thought involve the demonstration of God's existence, where he rejects scholastic influences. He critiques... Continue reading "Descartes' Philosophical Influences: Plato, Augustine, and Renaissance Thought" »

Enlightenment Reason: Finite Yet Critical

Reason during the Enlightenment was considered finite, limited by experience. It cannot surpass experimental limits, yet within the realm of experience, reason can potentially know everything. Within experience, reason is autonomous and self-sufficient, limited only by itself. It governs itself, independent of trends, customs, or traditions. Reason is inherently critical; it must subject everything to critique and judgment. Kant's conception of reason, while also critical and autonomous, acknowledges its limits, suggesting that what lies beyond experience either doesn't exist or cannot be proven.

The Enlightenment Concept of Man

This era moved towards a new humanism, emphasizing freedom from religious... Continue reading "Enlightenment Thought: Reason, Nature, and Human Freedom" »