Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Creationism vs. Evolutionism

Creationism

Henry M. Morris, considered the father of scientific creationism, states that the Earth was created by God just before the universal Flood. Utilizing the watchmaker analogy, proponents argue that human beings exhibit so many signs of intelligent design that simply listing them serves as a compelling argument for God's existence.

Evolutionism

The scientific community widely accepts that all life has evolved from a single type of living creature or initial life forms, and that living things have changed throughout Earth's history. Every species, whether fossilized or living, has originated from a preceding species. Evolution is, therefore, a well-supported scientific fact.

Facts: Data observed in the world.... Continue reading "Creationism vs. Evolutionism: A Comparative Analysis" »

Thomistic Principles: Aristotle's Influence

St. Thomas Aquinas retains many Aristotelian principles to explain the material world, incorporating elements from Plato's system. Thomistic metaphysics is therefore both Platonic and Aristotelian.

Preceding thinkers, including St. Thomas, sought to understand what distinguishes the world and what explains its existence. Through an analysis of the concept of creation, St. Thomas concluded that the difference between God and other beings is that they are created. In contrast, God necessarily exists and cannot not exist; He is necessary being.

Essence and Existence

This led Aquinas to distinguish between essence and existence, defining essence as what things are—their inherent nature—and existence as... Continue reading "Thomistic Principles: Aristotle's Influence on Existence" »

The Evolving Meaning of Work in Society

The meaning attributed to work and its social, political, or religious role has not always been the same. Generally, work is the action through which human beings attempt to respond, revealing their capacity for invention and their power to transform nature.

Ancient Greek Perspectives on Work and Life

Greek philosophy conceived of the human being as one who knows, who yearns to contemplate the truth. When someone was forced to perform necessary tasks simply to survive, it was considered a servile life. Aristotle spoke against the domination of men in this context. The Greeks distinguished between two types of life:

• Private life: Serving the needs of life, which ought to remain hidden.
• Public life: Relating

Fundamental Ethical Concepts

Morality

Morality refers to the set of values and behaviors considered acceptable within a society at a specific time. It involves judging actions that are conscious, voluntary, and have social consequences.

Ethics

Ethics involves theoretical reflection upon morality.

Moral Judgment

A moral judgment is a statement affirming or denying something morally. There are three types:

• Judgments of fact: These describe or affirm something without expressing a personal opinion.
• Value judgments: These assert or deny the value of something specific.
• Moral judgments: These are value judgments that specifically reference moral acts and standards.

Aristotle's Virtue Ethics

Aristotle believed that humans exist to achieve a purpose in life.... Continue reading "Philosophical Perspectives on Morality and Ethics" »

The Struggle for Equality

The movement for women's equality began in England, with Mary Wollstonecraft arguing that inequality between men and women is not natural but a product of society and tradition. March 8th is International Women's Day.

The Condition of Women Today: Two Laws

The Law of Integral Protection Against Gender Violence: This law strengthens public awareness, introduces care systems for victims, increases penalties for aggressors, and focuses on prevention.

The Law of Equality Between Men and Women: This law promotes work-life balance, greater equality in family matters and reproductive rights, and equal opportunities in public administration jobs.

The Law as a Guarantee of Rights

• The principle of legality: The law is debated, approved,

Introduction to La Celestina

La Celestina, published in Burgos in 1499, consists of 21 acts of varying length and was written by Fernando de Rojas. The dramatic action is divided into a prologue and two parts.

Plot Summary

The action begins when young Calisto, chasing a hawk in the garden, casually encounters Melibea, with whom he falls in love. Fascinated by her beauty, he declares his love, but she violently rejects him. Given Melibea's rejection, Calisto hires an old bawd, Celestina, who, with the help of Calisto's servant, secures the young woman's surrender. Blinded by greed, Celestina refuses to share the reward obtained for her services, leading to her murder and execution. The young lovers, wildly devoted to the enjoyment of their love,... Continue reading "The Tragedy of Calisto and Melibea: An Analysis of La Celestina" »

Item 4: Practical Rationality: Ethics and Political Philosophy

1. Practical Reason: What Should I Do?

Humans seek to find happiness, so they are aware of their actions and reflect on them. Moral acts are designed and directed by the question: "What should I do?"

Practical reason can:

• Be aware
• Encourage
• Judge

To choose correctly, you must take into account the following:

• The Memorandum: That which drives me to act in a certain way.
• The Ends: What I want to achieve and accomplish; my will moves me "towards" this.
• Means: That which is used to achieve the ends.

2. Moral Conscience

Conscience is the ability of humans to make moral judgments.

Moral conscience is defined as the capacity of practical reason that captures moral principles, capable of differentiating... Continue reading "Practical Rationality: Ethics and Political Philosophy" »

A-E

• Appeal: The action of appealing.
• Bison: A troop or a soldier.
• Cloying: To puddle the ground or form a pool of water.
• Concoct: To prepare the threads in the loom to pass.
• Coto: Bounded land.
• Demarcate: To draw the boundaries or confines of a country or area.
• Deplorable: Deserving to be deplored.
• Discern: To distinguish something from something else, noting the difference between them.
• Discreet: Endowed with discretion.
• Disfunción: Derangement in the operation of something or its rightful role.
• Drastic: Rigorous, energetic, radical, draconian.
• Eager: Having an impetuous force.
• Effectiveness: The ability to achieve the desired effect or expected result.
• Espadrille: Footwear with a sole of esparto or hemp canvas, which is secured by a simple adjustment

Ortega's Philosophy: Understanding Life Through Reason

Ortega's philosophy is an attempt to understand life through reason. For him, philosophy is not merely an end, but a useful intellectual need to understand the 'why' of reality. It embodies a rebellious, nonconformist attitude, questioning what is 'given' and seeking its underlying causes. Its key features include: the imperative of autonomy, the principle of pantonomy, and theoretical knowledge achieved through expressible rational inquiry. This ontological task seeks essential truth through reason.

Critique of Past Philosophy: The Radical Reality of Life

The error of philosophy in the past, according to Ortega, lies in its inability to truly understand life. Realism erred by considering... Continue reading "Ortega y Gasset: The Philosophy of Life and Vital Reason" »

Specificity of Human Action

Action is the activity of a conscious, voluntary being; only humans can be considered agents of this type.

• Animal behavior: Animals are more conditioned by their genetic endowment. When animals act, they do not do so spontaneously and freely, but rather execute a genetic program. Many of their actions are automatic.
• Behavior of a computer: This is very similar to that of animals. It is defined by a computer program that determines its responses and actions.
• Human behavior: This behavior is spontaneous and not the repetition of an inherited pattern. The specificity of human behavior is choice; it is a voluntary agency.

Types of Human Action

• Individual Action: An activity produced in a conscious, voluntary way.
• Collective