Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

St. Thomas Aquinas: Theory of Knowledge

St. Thomas Aquinas's Theory of Knowledge explains intellectual knowledge through the theory of abstraction. Drawing essentially from Aristotle, Aquinas posits that the agent intellect abstracts (i.e., separates, though not physically) the intelligible (universal) from the individual sensible images (particulars). This abstracted universal is then presented to the patient intellect, enabling it to know the act of knowing. This process leads to the understanding of concepts through the essences of things. The attribution of one concept to another results in a judgment, which is true if what it asserts corresponds to reality.

St. Thomas Aquinas: Ethical Philosophy

In Ethics, St. Thomas Aquinas adopts Aristotle'... Continue reading "St. Thomas Aquinas's Core Philosophical Doctrines" »

Conscientious Objection: It is the duty of conscience of a citizen who considers a law to be breaking their religious or moral beliefs.

Ethics: A matter of thinking (reasoning) about behavior and rules to determine if they lead us to good. It is a part of philosophy.

Morality: A set of ethical standards that are in force in a given society. It is a social construct, and therefore, there are many moralities across different societies.

Differences in Ethics and Morality: Ethics is more objective and individual, while morality is more subjective and collective.

Metamoral: Analysis from a higher level than we typically do, examining the rules themselves.

Law: That which we possess simply by being in this world, regardless of race, color, religion. It... Continue reading "Understanding Ethics, Morality, Law, and Responsibility" »

Marx on Human Essence: Social Relations

For Marx, humanity is primarily defined by its social relations. He stated, "...the human essence is no abstraction inherent in each individual. In reality, it is the ensemble of social relations." These relationships are not purely spiritual, existing only between consciousnesses, but represent the unity of spiritual and material interactions established as humans engage in the production and reproduction of both material and spiritual life.

• Humanity as a natural-active being.
• Humanity as essentially a social being.
• Humanity as a historical being.
• Humanity as a subject of study.

Nietzsche: Humanity Between Beast and Superman

For Nietzsche, humanity is a transitional stage between ape and what he termed the... Continue reading "Philosophical Views on Human Nature: Marx, Nietzsche, Kant, Feuerbach" »

Influence and Departure from Rousseau

Kant's political thought, rooted in contractualism, flourished during an era of optimism. Influenced by Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Hobbes, Kant introduced the social contract in his practical philosophy, echoing Rousseau's work. However, Kant's approach diverges significantly. For Kant, the social contract isn't a historical event but a regulative idea of practical reason—a benchmark against which real policies are judged. It compels legislators to act "as if" laws originate from the general will, making it an ideal, not a utopian aspiration.

Sovereignty and the Role of Citizens

Unlike Rousseau, who vested sovereignty in the united will of the people, Kant identifies the sovereign as the monarch or elected... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant's Social Contract Theory" »

Plato's Allegory of the Cave: A Philosophical Journey

Plato's Allegory of the Cave is arguably his most famous philosophical concept. It explains his Theory of Ideas, his epistemological theory (theory of knowledge), and his anthropological theory (theory of human nature).

The story places us in a cave where prisoners have been forced to look at shadows cast by a fire and moving objects throughout their lives. In this first metaphor, the author identifies the prisoners chained to the human soul, which is tied to an earthly body and belongs to the world of things. This world is imperfect and sensitive, and its characteristics are mere shadows of reality.

In the myth, Plato wonders what would happen if one of the prisoners were to stand and see

Understanding Relativism

Cultural and Moral Relativism

Cultural Relativism claims that good and evil are relative to each culture, so the same value can be both good and bad. Moral Relativism is the claim that every moral system acquires meaning internally, and there is no objective value across different systems.

The Relativist Outlook

Relativism, as an outlook, can lead towards moral indifference, the negation of all values, and therefore also to the denial of ethical tolerance.

Universalism: Seeking Moral Truth

Universalism maintains that there is a good and a bad, defending that there is only one valid moral code. It posits that a regulation cannot be right or wrong depending on circumstances or cultures. The difference between relativism and... Continue reading "Foundations of Morality and Ethics" »

Understanding Logic and Reasoning

Early Concepts and Ambiguity

• Modes: 1: AB, 2: AB, 3: AB, 4: AB
• Relationships: AC, CA, BC, CB, CA, CB, CA, CB
• Abstract Thought: "A-whole-E is no. Or is it some? Some I is not."

An example of ambiguity: "The pig of the child" (Does this mean "The pig belongs to the child," "The pig is the child," or "The child is dirty like a pig?").

Signs and Symbols: Semiotic Entities

Signs and symbols are semiotic entities with distinct properties. A sign is defined by the relationship between the signifier, the signified, and the interpretant, while a symbol is a graphical representation that can be part of a larger sign system. Both convey ideas effectively in pre-literate or functionally illiterate cultures. However, their utility... Continue reading "Logic and Reasoning: Deductive, Inductive, and Semiotics" »

Understanding Argumentative Writing

Argumentation is a form of expression that aims to defend or refute an idea or thesis through a series of arguments or reasons to demonstrate its validity.

Parts of an Argument

• Thesis Exposure: States the idea we intend to defend or refute. This should be done simply and accurately.
• Reasoning: These are the arguments or reasons provided to support our point of view.
• Conclusion: Here, we concisely summarize all arguments.

Key Rhetorical Devices & Literary Resources

Phonic Resources

• Alliteration: Occurs when several consecutive words repeat a single sound.
• Anaphora: Consists of repeating one or more words at the beginning of two or more lines or clauses.

Syntactic Resources

• Hyperbaton: This device alters the logical

Nietzsche's Philosophy: 19th Century Context

Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophy emerged during the second half of the nineteenth century, a period marked by significant revolutions across Europe. The ongoing struggle for rights and freedoms fueled the rise of liberalism and socialism, ideologies that played a crucial role in the Revolutions of 1848. These uprisings, however, were met with suppression, repression, and persecution of the burgeoning labor movement.

Concurrently, powerful nationalist movements gained traction in Germany, culminating in German unification and the establishment of a state under Prussian hegemony. Otto von Bismarck spearheaded this movement, and a young Nietzsche initially shared these nationalistic ideals. In France,... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: Historical Context and Key Influences" »

Human Action

Human action is a conscious and voluntary act caused by human behavior, resulting in a specific event. It must be personal, intentional, and conscious. Human actions have several key elements:

• Intention: The conscious trends and acceptance by the subject that initiate an action. Intentions are mental and can only be inferred by others.
• Purpose: The aim that the subject consciously and explicitly tries to achieve through the action.
• Motivation: The combination of intention and purpose that drives the action. Motivation is the effect of the action.
• Consequences: The events or states caused by the action. Consequences depend on the resources used and the knowledge possessed. Unintended consequences are common and raise the issue of the