Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Understanding Human Intelligence and Behavior

Human intelligence is defined by the ability to manage behavior effectively using information to solve novel problems.

• Managing Performance: We cannot act intelligently if we are incapable of directing our behavior, which is often driven by desires and fears.
• Making the Right Choice: This involves making the right choice and acting effectively.
• Using Information: We must seek and utilize relevant information.
• Solving Novel Problems: Practical problems are more complicated because, besides finding the solution, we must implement it, which is often the hardest part.

Status and Freedom in Society

We are social beings; we need to live together. We are born immature and need to learn almost everything. Fortunately,... Continue reading "Human Intelligence, Will, and Societal Concepts Defined" »

Plato & Aristotle: Conception of the Soul

Aristotle rejected Plato's dualistic theory, which posited that humans are composed of a body and soul with a radical division between these two components. For Aristotle, the soul is the principle of life, the 'act' of a living body, distinguishing it from inanimate objects.

Consequently, he argued that not only humans possess souls, but also that different kinds of souls exist, corresponding to different forms of life. Hence, Aristotle distinguished three types of souls: vegetative, animal (or sensitive), and rational. In contrast, Plato viewed the soul as a uniquely human quality, not establishing different kinds of souls but rather dividing the human soul into three parts: the rational, the spirited... Continue reading "Ancient & Medieval Philosophy: Soul, God, and Christian Thought" »

Rawls' Principles of Justice

Rawls defines two main principles:

• Principle of Equal Liberty

  All people possess the same fundamental freedoms and rights.

• Principle of Economic Inequality

  This principle permits economic inequalities only if they benefit all. It is justified if two conditions are met:

  • Economic inequalities must improve the situation of the least advantaged members of society (the Difference Principle).
  • Economic inequalities must be attached to positions and offices open to all under conditions of Fair Equality of Opportunity.

  Therefore, it is not unfair for some people to be richer than others if these two conditions are met. Such differences may arise because individuals possess varying levels of proficiency, skill, or ability to utilize

The Hellenistic Period (Beginning 323 BC)

The Hellenistic period began in 323 BC with the death of Alexander the Great. Classical philosophy, marked by the death of Aristotle a year later, underwent significant transformation. Alexander's empire fragmented into various ancient monarchies and military dictatorships.

During this era, monarchies remained strong, but democratic principles declined, and the focus on traditional politics diminished. Hellenistic theories often rejected political engagement. While the period is sometimes strictly defined as ending with the rise of the Roman Empire under Augustus, it can be argued that, given the Romans were also Hellenized, the era truly concluded with the fall of the empire.

Key Characteristics of Hellenistic

The Fixity of Species

The concept of the fixity of species posits that species, as created by God, are immutable and isolated groups. This view was notably supported by Linnaeus.

From a philosophical perspective, this idea relates to the immutability of things (as discussed by Plato). Key tenets include:

• Every individual has a predetermined place in nature.
• There is an immutable core to human nature.
• The human being is considered the protagonist of creation.

Foundations of Evolutionary Theory

Evolutionary thought began with the Lamarckian transformist theory. However, the complete evolutionary framework was developed by Charles Darwin, who provided extensive evidence supporting his ideas:

Key Concepts of Darwinian Evolution

• Common Origin of Species
• The

Philosophy is an activity that reflects on concepts. It involves examining concepts without preconceived notions and responding with arguments or reasoning, similar to Aristotle's approach. According to him, the origin of philosophy lies in the admiration for strange phenomena that we don't understand by nature or because we lack instinctive explanations. Explanations can be:

• Pre-rational: Myths are explanations based on imagination. These fantasy stories tell of supernatural beings and random events.
• Rational: These explanations originated in Miletus (6th century BC) due to its geographical location and commercial activity. The rise of democracy in Miletus contributed to the development of rational reasoning.

Types of Rational Explanations:

• Scientific

Aristotle's Metaphysics: Being and Substance (First Philosophy)

The subject of metaphysics is being. In this part of his philosophy, Aristotle attempts to synthesize previous theories, particularly Plato's, before proposing his own framework.

The central issue Aristotle addresses is finding a compromise between two opposing concepts previously established:

• "There is only what does not change (which reason knows)."
• "Being is everything that is shown at the time, thus changing."

Aristotle's solution is that 'being' neither has a unique meaning nor the meaning everyone wants to give, but rather has a primary meaning related to one thing: substance (or substantiality).

The substantial form is the principle of existence for living beings, which is the... Continue reading "Aristotle's Core Philosophy: Metaphysics, Epistemology, and Politics" »

John Locke (1632–1704): Father of Liberalism

John Locke is considered the father of political liberalism. His most important work is Two Treatises of Government.

The Social Contract and Consent of the Governed

The main idea of Locke's philosophy is that the power of rulers is based on the consent of the governed.

The State of Nature (Locke)

For Locke, civil government arises through a social contract. His State of Nature is characterized by:

• Complete Equality: No one is above anyone else.
• Perfect Freedom: Individuals can do whatever they want with themselves and their properties.
• Natural Law Limit: This freedom has a limit—the obligation not to harm others.

Men leave the State of Nature because not all individuals adhere to natural law; some violate... Continue reading "Locke vs. Hobbes: Contrasting Social Contract Theories" »

The Sophists and Athenian Democracy

Sophists and Socrates represented the concerns and interests of Athenian democracy. In this critical period, freedom and law were important issues, with law central to most discussions. The Sophists considered value management poorly, contrasting it with permanent and universal characteristics. The contrast between law (*nomos*) and nature (*physis*) became the subject of the moment.

The Sophists were foreigners in Athens and educated connoisseurs, providing new ideas. The word "sophist" was initially a synonym for "wise" but later came to mean "skillful in misleading" (Plato viewed the Sophists as destructive).

As foreigners, the Sophists could not intervene directly in the city's policy, but they educated... Continue reading "Socrates, Sophists, and the Foundations of Athenian Philosophy" »

Background of the Problem

All work done prior to the formulation of the problem serves to clarify, evaluate, and interpret the issue: Background of the Problem.

Setting the Background — What to Avoid

When setting the background to the problem, avoid doing the following: providing a historical account of the problem, listing bibliographical sources to be used, presenting collected data when we do not yet know where to place it, or simply describing the causes of the problem.

Purpose and Presentation of Background

The background should present a conceptual synthesis of research or work on the problem. In the presentation of the history, the objective is to harness existing theories about the problem in order to structure the theoretical framework.... Continue reading "Research Problem Background and Justification for Studies" »