Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Ethics and Morality: A Philosophical Exploration

Defining Ethics and Morality

Ethics is the philosophical reflection on morality, residing in the realm of thought. Morality, on the other hand, is lived experience—how we act. While often used synonymously, they represent distinct concepts. Morality encompasses life's choices, while ethics delves into the reasoning behind those choices. Being demoralized implies an inability to make decisions, while living morally means being a fully realized person, ready to face any challenge.

Moral Structure and Content

All individuals possess a moral structure, the capacity to choose between alternatives and justify their selections. This makes us accountable for our choices. Moral content comprises the norms,... Continue reading "Exploring Ethics, Morality, and Existential Questions" »

Descartes' First Meditation: The Seeds of Doubt

The Unreliability of Sensory Experience

René Descartes' First Meditation begins with a warning about the uncertainty of previous opinions regarding the method of science. To establish a firm foundation for knowledge, Descartes aims to destroy ancient beliefs by subjecting them to doubt. This necessitates questioning the very foundations of our opinions, particularly since our senses can sometimes deceive us.

A critical examination of the senses reveals their potential to mislead us as a primary way of learning and acquiring knowledge. While the senses are often considered the foundation of knowledge—as everything we perceive has been learned through them—they are not always reliable. It would... Continue reading "Descartes' First Meditation: Foundations of Doubt and Reality" »

Expository and Argumentative Texts

The study of text types often begins with the fundamental concepts of exposition and argumentation.

Defining Expository Texts

The purpose of expository texts is to inform and provide knowledge about a topic. Their primary didactic goal is to help the receiver understand an idea or expand their existing knowledge.

Expository writing must be orderly, clear, and objective, often mastering the referential function of language. We commonly find these texts in encyclopedias, newspaper articles, and conferences.

Types of Expository Texts

Expository texts can generally be grouped into two main categories:

• Informative Texts: These report clearly and objectively about a topic of general interest and should be easy to understand.

Truth: Theories and Perspectives

2.4 Against the Problem of Knowledge and Truth

Parmenides distinguished two ways: truth and opinion. Connecting with this idea, Plato argued that there was a kind of true knowledge, while error belongs to the sphere of opinion. Marx and Hegel argued that error and falsehood are constituent elements of the process of knowledge. They signaled that there were false and ideological conceptions that have attempted to be presented as true.

Positions on the Subject-Object Relationship

• Idealism: The criterion of truth is about the subject that creates or constructs the object. Reality cannot be known directly. The cognitive structure of the human being is imposed and determines how to see things.
• Realism: The criterion of

Plato's Theory of Ideas

Plato accepted the existence of mathematical objects and values but doubted the existence of sensible things. It seemed absurd that vulgar things could be Ideas, as Ideas are perfect, unlike the imperfect sensible world. He established a hierarchy of Ideas. The Idea of the Good is supreme, followed by Beauty and Justice.

Platonic Cosmology

According to Plato, any explanation of the sensible world cannot be truly scientific, but rather a plausible narrative filled with guesswork. Initially, there was only Chaos. To transform it into the Cosmos, Plato introduced the Demiurge, an ordering intelligence. This intelligence needed a model, which it found in the World of Ideas. It is a teleological model, pursuing a specific purpose.... Continue reading "Plato's Philosophy: Ideas, Soul, and Knowledge" »

Hume's Philosophy: Key Concepts

Ideas

Ideas are a kind of perception that are less lively and depend on sense impressions. They are based on experience, which Hume argues is the only possible area of knowledge.

Ideas are copies or derivations of our impressions and meanings derived from internal or external sources.

• Hume attaches extreme importance to the law of association of ideas. Human nature has a tendency to link ideas together. These laws are resemblance, contiguity, and cause-and-effect relationship.
• Imagination plays a big role in the combinations of ideas that we create, and often follows the force of habit.
• The association between ideas helps to explain concepts like the idea of substance and the idea of subject. Hume criticizes ideas

Kant's Critique of Pure Reason: Structure and Impact

This text discusses the second edition of Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, published in 1787. The first edition appeared in 1781, but a misunderstanding by critics prompted him to write in 1783 a summary of the work from another point of view, titled Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics That Will Be Able to Come Forward as Science. The second edition of the Critique represents the author's final thoughts on the subject.

Structure of the Critique of Pure Reason

Its structure includes an introduction and two main parts:

1. The Transcendental Doctrine of Elements
2. The Transcendental Doctrine of Method

The Transcendental Doctrine of Elements

Within the Transcendental Doctrine of Elements, two further... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason: Core Ideas & Impact" »

Plato's Anthropology: The Dual Nature of Man

In his anthropology, Plato explains the dual structure of man, composed of a passive, interior body (matter) and a superior soul (life, knowledge).

The Soul's Functions and Knowledge

The soul is devoted to various functions:

• Concupiscence: Vital functions and desires.
• Irascible: Moods and knowledge acquired through the senses.
• Rational: Reflection and thought, the highest function.

The rational function has no material needs and is forbidden to interact directly with matter. The soul joins the body and remembers its innate knowledge. In this process, true knowledge is recalled, as all true knowledge is knowledge of Ideas.

Plato's Metaphysics: The World of Ideas

The Ideas are universal concepts, abstract (... Continue reading "Plato's Core Philosophy: Ideas, Soul, and Society" »

Legal System and Standards

Natural Law Defined

In any society, coexistence necessitates order; without it, life is impossible. Natural law refers to a set of rules that embody the ideal of justice (the "duty to be").

Positive Law: Governing Principles

Unlike natural law, positive law refers to a set of standards that are not left to the free will of individuals but are imposed coercively. A right is considered positive because it governs at a particular time, meaning it is currently in force. For example, the Civil Code of 1889 is considered positive law because it remains in effect.

Theoretically, positive law should be guided by natural law, developing its principles while considering the specific circumstances of time and place. The correlation... Continue reading "Understanding Legal Systems: Natural, Positive, & Civil Law" »

Aristotle's Four Causes of Change

Aristotle identifies four fundamental causes necessary for understanding change and existence:

1. Material Cause: That from which something changes (the raw material).
2. Formal Cause: What determines the structure or essence of matter (the blueprint).
3. Efficient Cause: What starts the process of change (the agent or mover).
4. Final Cause: That for which something changes (the purpose or telos).

Movement and the Prime Mover

Everything that moves has the potential ability to move, but requires a separate cause (an efficient cause or "engine") to actualize its mobility. Similarly, the engine needs a cause to update its power to move; thus, each engine is itself moved. There must be a First Mover if movement is indeed real, and... Continue reading "Aristotle's Metaphysics: Causes, Mover, and the Soul" »