Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Philosophy and ethics

Plato's Theory of Knowledge: Four Levels

Sensible and Intelligible Worlds

In Plato's theory of knowledge, each level of reality, encompassing both the sensible and intelligible worlds, corresponds to a specific type of knowledge. The Allegory of the Cave illustrates this concept, emphasizing the challenges in transitioning between levels of knowledge and the moral and political implications for those who attain supreme knowledge, the Idea of the Good.

Four Levels of Knowledge

Plato divides knowledge into four levels. The first two belong to the visible world and constitute opinion rather than true knowledge. The remaining two pertain to the intelligible world and represent true knowledge.

1. Imagination (Eikasia)

Eikasia is the lowest level of knowledge.... Continue reading "Plato's Theory of Knowledge: Levels and Dialectics" »

The Person as an End in Themselves

From a moral perspective, and stemming from fundamental postulates, Kant emphasizes the concept of the person. This definition of the human being underwent significant discussion from Scholasticism to Kant. According to Kant, the human being is only knowable as a moral entity. Moral law manifests in humans as an imperative, because the will is not subject solely to reason, but also to other influences like impulses and inclinations.

Kant distinguishes between two types of imperatives: the categorical imperative, where the action is presented without reference to any purpose and is the sole basis for moral law, and the hypothetical imperative, which represents an action as good in relation to achieving a specific... Continue reading "Understanding the Person: Dignity, Personalism, and Historical Perspectives" »

Context: René Descartes and 17th-Century Philosophy

René Descartes, a prominent figure of the seventeenth century, is considered the father of modern philosophy. A great mathematician, he is known for inventing analytic geometry. He founded the influential school of continental rationalism, characterized by:

• Confidence in Reason

  Reason, as opposed to sensory experience, is the primary source of truth. It is infallible and capable of uncovering innate truths independently of sensory experience. From these foundational ideas, more complex truths are derived through deduction. There is a parallel between the world and reason, as both operate according to logical laws.

• Mechanistic Worldview

  The world is viewed as a machine governed by laws. This mechanistic

Mystical Experience: Feeling the Believers in Direct Contact with Divinity

A mystical experience is an experience of spiritual union where the person feels a connection with God. To achieve this state of union between the human soul and divinity, the mystic uses a series of purification activities to become worthy of such a meeting. The mystical experience is difficult to communicate.

The Problem of Good and Evil

The problem of good and evil arises in the context of being, with abstract concepts derived from daily situations in very special circumstances: war and hunger, for example, in the case of evil, and love and friendship in the case of good.

The Nature of Good and Evil

Human actions can be categorized as good when they are pleasant and beautiful,... Continue reading "Understanding Mystical Experiences and the Nature of Good and Evil" »

Types of Problems and Decisions

Program: Not scheduled.

Relationship between alternatives and consequences: Certainty, risk, uncertainty, competition.

Number of individuals who have to make a decision: Individual, group.

Number of objectives: One, more than one.

Forms of Decision

• From experience: Whether to be guided by past actions.
• For Democracy: The agreement considering the opinion of each.
• Study of the problem: To act as a logical plan.

Factors Influencing Decision-Making

Resources at our disposal, the more time we think and analyze the consequences, beliefs, values, and way of thinking.

Methods for Making Decisions

• For most: Proposal most voted.
• Unanimously: All agree.

Process in Decision-Making

• Having a goal: What is to be achieved and what problems

Epistemology: Understanding the Nature of Knowledge

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the analysis of what knowledge is. It also determines its origin, the method we follow to obtain it, and what we know. Interest in knowledge has been constant throughout the history of thought. However, this issue became even more important, and epistemology stepped into the center of philosophical reflection. This was due to two reasons:

• The importance of the natural sciences: Physics reached, with Isaac Newton, its maturity as a science. Success and encouraging progress prompted epistemological analysis of this type of knowledge, in order to determine what made possible its effectiveness and infallibility.
• Awareness of its basic dimensions:

Nietzsche: A Life of Contrast

The Tension Between Life and Philosophy

Friedrich Nietzsche's life and works are marked by a stark contrast, reflecting the tension between a man plagued by illness and his philosophy exalting life. This discrepancy is striking: one of the most profound thinkers of his time is also responsible for some of history's most radical irrationalism.

Early Life and Academic Career

Born in Röcken, Germany, the son of a Protestant pastor, Nietzsche excelled academically and displayed a character that set him apart from his peers. Severe headaches began in his youth, foreshadowing the mental illness that would later consume him. In 1864, he began studying theology and classical philology. Four years later, fascinated by Wagner'... Continue reading "Nietzsche: Life, Works, and Philosophical Stages" »

Values

The concept of value originates from economics and refers to objects, situations, qualities, or ideas that are generally appreciated or esteemed. The value of something is what makes it desirable or useful. Values guide our actions and are present in every human activity, acting as a beacon that attracts and invites us to orient ourselves. They represent aspirations or desires, something worthy of being achieved, either personally or collectively. Values give meaning to life and evoke strong emotions.

Characteristics of Values

• Important: They guide our behavior, making us prefer some things over others (e.g., choosing between a canteen and gold).
• Transcendent: They are not inherent in objects or facts but are added from the outside, which

Doubt

There are different ways of referring to the questions proposed by Descartes (check the class book); the most common references are to "hyperbolic doubt" or "methodical doubt." All mean the same: we doubt everything that is possible and then consider it false.

Metaphysical meditations are perhaps the clearest attempt to implement Cartesian doubt. We see it.

When does a man start wandering? From a young age. The boy is an imperfect man, lacking what characterizes the man of reason, which has been imposed.

Admittedly, we were wrong; we are sick of our own opinions. What is the first step to cure a disease? Well, the first step is to meditate and radicalize the doubt!

General Rule:

WHAT ALL THE THINGS THAT MAY BE CONSIDERED FALSE: HYPERBOLIC DOUBT.... Continue reading "Descartes' Doubt and the Cogito: Foundations of Knowledge" »

Key Concepts in Ortega y Gasset's Philosophy

Ideas

One of the two main contributions of Ortega's philosophical doctrine (the other being beliefs). Ideas are thoughts that humans specifically construct. We are not inseparably connected with them (as with beliefs), so we can formulate, discuss, and refute them. Ideas are the tools by which philosophical creation advances.

Razón Vital (Vital Reason)

An instance that can grasp, as it is, the concrete reality that is human life (the existence of each individual). Abstract reason, which traditional rationalism proclaims, necessarily fails to address the instability, temporality, and historicity of human life. This is why Ortega claimed a specific razón that meets the special features of that reality:... Continue reading "Ortega y Gasset's Philosophy: Key Concepts" »