Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Theories of Truth

The Correspondence Theory

Truth is achieved when a statement matches reality. For centuries, this has been considered the most reliable way to ascertain truth. However, when reality is not material, truth becomes more subjective. Truth can never be subjective.

The Coherence Theory

Truth lies in consistency and the absence of contradictions within a set of statements. Logic is essential to determine consistency. Any change in information must maintain coherence. Hegel believed that truth encompasses everything. One ideal of science is to integrate all existing scientific theories.

The Pragmatic Theory

Truth is what produces useful results. This aligns with the idea that the end justifies the means, making it an a posteriori theory... Continue reading "Theories of Truth and the Possibility of Knowledge" »

Xenophanes

Xenophanes: After the Persians destroyed his hometown, he fled to Greece and traveled extensively, including visits to Elea. He was a singer who used satire in his work. He argued that anthropomorphism does not support religion and advocated a form of pantheism, stating that God and the cosmos are the same. According to him, God is unique, eternal, and immobile despite all the changes. His concept of Arche is the foundation and cause of all things. He attributed the cause of fossils to the fluctuations of sea levels.

The Pythagoreans

The Pythagoreans: Born in Samos, they moved to Crotona. The driving force behind their philosophy was the desire to save their immortal soul and escape the divine cycle of reincarnations. To free the soul... Continue reading "Pre-Socratic Philosophers: Xenophanes, Pythagoreans, and Heraclitus" »

Fundamental Political Concepts

Source of Political Power:

Investigating how, when, and why the first human communities developed a clear division between rulers and ruled.

Legitimacy:

The question of whether a phenomenon is positive or negative, and if it is worthwhile to maintain and improve, regardless of its historical origin. Not all political power is legitimate, just as not every form of football play is correct. In both cases, criteria are needed to distinguish legitimate from illegitimate forms.

Institution:

An established organization or system, often with the ability to enact laws, regulate for the public, and levy mandatory taxes or fees.

State:

The result of the transition from the state of nature into a society organized by a social contract.

Plato's Dual Reality: Forms and Appearances

Plato's philosophy posits a fundamental distinction between two realms of existence: the Intelligible World and the Visible World. This dualistic view is central to his understanding of reality, knowledge, and the human condition.

The Intelligible World: Realm of Forms

The Intelligible World, also known as the World of Forms or Ideas, is a realm accessible only through the mind, not through sensory perception. It is the domain of perfect, eternal, and unchanging entities that serve as the true reality behind the fleeting appearances of the visible world.

Characteristics of Intelligible Objects

• Apprehended solely through intellect and reason.
• Exist independently of human thought or perception.
• Are eternal,

Understanding Morality

Moral People: Moral problems arise, and they want to justify their behavior with reasoned decisions and actions.

Immoral People: They recognize the norms and values of society but infringe upon them by putting themselves in front, just abiding by the rules if it follows a profit.

Demoralized People: These are those who have learned moral failures due to a lack of courage.

Amoral People: They are indifferent to any moral question; if they get economic performance, anything goes.

Three Important Considerations of Happiness

• We cannot find happiness by chance; happiness is the result of a search.
• The finding of happiness depends on ourselves and the circumstances.
• Each of us can understand happiness in different ways.

To Be Happy

• We

The origins of ethical relativism can be traced back to the Homeric poems, specifically the Iliad and the Odyssey. These poems suggest a lack of universal moral values. Socrates challenged this view, asserting the existence of inherent moral values, a concept he explored through the Socratic method.

Moral Relativism

Moral relativism posits that principles of right and wrong are subjective and can only be found within each individual or group. Right and good are always relative to a specific group. This idea originated in Greece with the Sophists, notably Protagoras.

Related Positions to Relativism

• Cultural Relativism
• Contextual Relativism
• Ethnocentrism

Skepticism

Skepticism, as articulated by Pyrrho, suggests that we cannot find any reliable criterion... Continue reading "Ethical Relativism, Skepticism, and Moral Autonomy" »

Social Security Registrations and Deregistrations

Registrations (High) correspond to the beginning of a new job or a change of company for which an employee will provide services. They serve to establish the social security relationship for a protected individual.

Deregistrations (Low) correspond to the termination of professional activity that an employee had been developing, or the termination of the employment contract linking them with a particular company. They also apply to changes to a workplace located in different provinces, and even within the same province, if adherence to a different contribution account is required.

The Obligation to Contribute to Social Security

The main financial resources of the Social Security system come from... Continue reading "Social Security Contributions: Registration, Obligations, and Responsibilities in Spain" »

Ethics and Values in Social Work

Ethics

Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with morality and human duties. It explores the concept of "a must" that aligns with human nature and addresses the demand for universal values.

Moral Values

Moral values are norms and behaviors that guide human obligations in their interactions with each other and society.

Values

Values represent the ideal ways of being or acting for individuals or communities. They serve as goals and relate to culture, contributing to the common good. Values carry an emotional weight, enabling individuals to prioritize them over personal desires.

Beliefs

Beliefs signify a strong conviction and adherence to something, fully accepting an event or news as true. Unlike values, beliefs... Continue reading "Ethics, Values, and Social Work: A Comprehensive Guide" »

Mutation

If mutations are harmful, less fit individuals are eliminated by natural selection.

Synthetic Theory of Evolution

This modern theory of evolution, also called Neo-Darwinism, is currently the most accepted theory to explain the evolutionary processes of any population. Modern scientists argue that all biological organization, starting from the molecular level, has gone through an evolutionary process. Natural selection acting on genetic variation remains the way evolutionary changes manifest.

Development of the Theory of Evolution

In the late nineteenth century, the so-called primitive Neo-Darwinism, which is based on the principle of natural selection as the basis of evolution, found in the German biologist A. Weismann one of its main exponents.... Continue reading "Understanding Evolution: From Darwin to Neo-Darwinism" »

Descartes' Method and the Crisis of Knowledge

René Descartes' fundamental objective was to establish order in a world where everything was questioned. Cartesianism arose as an attempt to solve the crisis caused by the emergence of new science and the decline of scholasticism. Thinkers needed a new criterion for truth. While Francis Bacon argued that this criterion must be experience, Descartes posited that reason should establish this new approach through a method.

Descartes' Method: Four Key Rules

Descartes outlined a rational method as a set of rules, certain and easy to observe, that would prevent anyone from accepting falsehoods as truths. These rules can be summarized as follows:

1. Evidence: Accept only ideas known with absolute certainty