Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Descartes' Quest for Certainty

René Descartes states that the existence of the thinking self is a truth so strong and secure that even the extravagant assumptions of skeptics were unable to shake it. He argues that from the cogito, ergo sum (I think, therefore I am), there is an intuitive and immediate apprehension of this truth.

The Purpose of Cartesian Doubt

What is the meaning, truth, and purpose of Cartesian doubt? The goal is to achieve a sure and certain knowledge, built by our reason, that can be trusted beyond all doubt.

Descartes' Method: Four Rules

Descartes proposed a methodical approach to acquiring knowledge, consisting of four rules:

1. Rule of Evidence: To accept nothing as true which I do not clearly recognize to be so, avoiding precipitation

Karl Marx: Historical Materialism

Like Hegel, Marx shared the idea that reality is not static, but dynamic and changing, full of contradictions that compel it to transform. He understood this dynamic as a product of material forces and relations (unlike Hegel) that occur in reality. Marx, unlike Hegel's idealism, chose a materialistic position.

This materialism does not represent ideologies that determine a concrete reality, but conversely, it is the material reality that produces its own ideology. The cultural conditioning, religion, customs, and morals of a community are shaped by specific economic relationships and tensions within its production system. In other words, it is not ideas or the spirit that construct reality and history, but the... Continue reading "Karl Marx: Dialectical Materialism and the Vision of Communism" »

Language: More Than a Tool

Language is a means, but not merely a tool that consciousness uses to communicate with the world. There is a third instrument next to the sign and the tool – something that also belongs to the essential definition of man. Language is not a means or a tool. Because 'means' essentially implies mastering tool use; that is, we take it in hand and once we have run their service. Not so when we mouth the words of a language and let them be used from the general vocabulary at our disposal. That analogy is wrong because we never face the world as a consciousness that, in a state of language, uses the tool of consensus.

Language Shapes Knowledge and Being

The knowledge of ourselves and the world is invariably language, our

The Concept of Person

The word "person" comes from the Greek prosopon, which translates as "mask." The Greeks used it to refer to someone's appearance or figure, behind which the true self was hidden. The term was introduced into Christianity to refer to the individual and specific character of each human being, contrasting with the undifferentiated nature of people in antiquity. In this sense, Boethius defined a person as "an individual substance of a rational nature." Kant pointed out that to be a person is to be primarily free, i.e., able to be autonomous or self-legislating. In the twentieth century, philosophers established that the concept of person must be the key and central theme around which all philosophical reflection revolves. Philosophical... Continue reading "Understanding the Human Person: Philosophical Perspectives" »

1. Space and Time: The A Priori Forms of Sensible Intuition

Space and time are a priori forms, formal elements that affect the subject, as space and time are pure intuitions. Every sensation is multifaceted and occurs in space and time. Space is not an empirical concept; it is the condition of the possibility of phenomena. Besides, finite magnitude in space is to geometry as time is to arithmetic. We understand geometry as synthetic knowledge a priori. Therefore, space is not a property of things in themselves but the way the phenomena of the external senses appear to us.

Time is the basis for all intuitions, so different times are not simultaneous but successive. It is a pure form of sensible intuition and is a unique time. Therefore, these... Continue reading "Kant's Transcendental Philosophy: A Priori Forms and Practical Reason" »

Descartes on Clarity and Distinction

For René Descartes, clarity and distinction are key features of evidence, signifying knowledge present to the mind. He considered knowledge genuine only if it met both characteristics:

• It is clear: Present and accessible to the attentive mind.
• It is distinct: Precise and separated from all other objects, containing only what is clear within itself.

Knowledge must possess both clarity and distinction to serve as a reliable foundation.

Descartes' Criterion of Truth

The criterion Descartes established to determine the truth of our beliefs is evidence: true propositions are those that present themselves to the intellect as clear and distinct. An approach involves the requirement or standard used for evaluating something;... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Descartes' Philosophy: Mind, Truth, and Reality" »

Societal Norms: Law, Morality, and Social Mores

Currently, standards or rules of conduct that regulate personal and social behavior are grouped into distinct regulatory codes, each possessing unique characteristics. This situation has arisen from the growing complexity of social life, where each organization often develops its own code of standards, leading to a multiplicity of normative frameworks. Among these various codes, three have always been emphasized: law, morality, and social mores. The primary purpose of these codes has been to align individual behaviors with a model of "official" or accepted conduct. Consequently, they have served as the main agents of control and organization within social life.

Systematic Relationship: Law, Morality,

Plato's Theory of Knowledge: Epistemology

Characteristics of Platonic Knowledge

Plato's theory of knowledge requires characteristics of objectivity and universal validity. True knowledge, for Plato, must be unchanging and universally applicable.

The Object of Human Knowledge

The object of human knowledge cannot be solely derived from sensitive data. While describing science as a simple table is inaccurate due to its many types, the idea itself is unchangeable and serves as a true object of knowledge.

Degrees of Knowledge

Plato distinguishes between two main degrees of knowledge:

Science (Episteme)

This represents true knowledge, characterized by certainty and understanding of the Forms or Ideas.

• Intuitive Knowledge

  Within the realm of episteme, this

From Cosmology to Science

Early questions about the order of the universe led to the development of cosmogonies. When the existence of principles or laws explaining the regularity of events was sought, the first science of the universe, or cosmology, emerged. Cosmology is the part of philosophy that studies the physical world, providing a general picture through critical reflection. One of the initial key questions concerned the relationship between reason, senses, and observation techniques. With the rise of the scientific method, cosmology was gradually replaced by empirical science.

Defining Science

Science is a human activity that generates a systematic and organized body of knowledge using laws and general principles. However, not all disciplines... Continue reading "Understanding Science: Methods, Classification, and Limits" »

Plato's Cave Allegory: A Philosophical Analysis

The text is a fragment of Plato's Myth of the Cave, which condenses several core doctrines:

• Theory of Knowledge (Epistemological Level)
• Pedagogical Reading (Education as key to rebalancing the internal order of the soul)
• Ontological Reading (Ontological dualism)
• Political Reading (Thesis of the philosopher-king)
• Anthropological Reading (Concept of man as composed of body and soul)

The Socratic Dialogue Method

The text's dialogical structure reflects the core intent of Plato's philosophy: to foster dialogue in human relationships, contrasting with the violence that Socrates ultimately faced. This approach will be further detailed in its contextualization.

Journey from the Cave: Degrees of Knowledge

The ascent... Continue reading "Plato's Cave Allegory: Knowledge, Education, and Reality" »