Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The Evolution of the Family

In our current era, family life has regained prestige among youth and those entering marriage, standing in stark contrast to the cultural shifts of the late 1960s. During that period, counter-cultural movements often advocated for free unions with minimal commitment, rejected traditional child-rearing, and promoted communal living where work, expenses, and parenting were shared without requirements for fidelity.

Today, it is often argued that the family is in crisis. Family ties have become more fragile, and the definition of family has diversified significantly. The traditional family structure has weakened, along with the traditional authority of the father, as the concept of passing down a specific profession or... Continue reading "Modern Family Dynamics and Changing Work Perspectives" »

The Role of the Owner

The owner of an enterprise refers to the individual or group holding ownership of the company. They contribute capital to establish it, purchase machinery, and sometimes provide goods, property, or plant. They can also provide both money and necessary assets.

These necessary resources can be provided by a single person or several individuals.

The Function of Management

In small companies, the owner typically runs the business themselves. However, it is also possible for this task to be performed by another person contracted to manage operations on their behalf.

This reality introduces another crucial concept: management (or direction). This function is exercised by those with the authority to set goals, make timely decisions... Continue reading "Business Ownership, Management, and Corporate Governance" »

The Nature of Political Institutions

Political institutions represent an attempt to organize life in common. They are a feature that has accompanied humanity since ancient times. These institutions provide ways of exercising power, such as developing standards and establishing laws.

Their primary functions include:

• Administering justice: A group of people is responsible for judging whether individuals follow the laws.
• Project management: Building and running projects for the people.
• War and organization: Deciding whether or not to participate in a war organization.
• Moral and religious criteria: Establishing ethical and religious frameworks for society.

The Development of Modern States

Modern states began to emerge in the Modern Age. Various philosophers... Continue reading "Foundations of Modern Political Institutions" »

The Enduring Legacy of Thomas Aquinas

Early Opposition and the Rise of Thomism

Following the death of Thomas Aquinas, his philosophy faced significant opposition, particularly from the Franciscans. They regarded Saint Augustine as the most faithful exponent of the Christian view. This opposition culminated in the condemnation of certain Thomistic doctrines by ecclesiastical authorities in Paris and Oxford in 1277. However, it soon became clear that these fears were unfounded. Following the canonization of Saint Thomas in 1323, Thomism expanded significantly, becoming a dominant intellectual force.

Reason and Faith: Aquinas Versus Augustine

A central theme in medieval philosophy is the ongoing debate between reason and faith. Thomas Aquinas, unlike... Continue reading "Thomas Aquinas: Reason, Faith, and Scholastic Philosophy" »

Comprehensive Glossary of Terms

A

• Archbishop: Metropolitan Bishop of the Church or one who has such honors.
• Autocratic: Relating to an autocracy or autocrat.
• Acclamation: Action and effect of cheering, giving voice to the crowd.
• Amnesty: Pardon of a certain group of political crimes, granted by law.
• Agree: To agree on terms or conditions for concluding a business deal.
• Adjudicate: To dismiss the action and effect.
• Adjacent: Adjoining, bordering, borderline. Describes the land which bounds a town with another land.
• Appellant: One who resorts. A person who has filed an appeal.

B

• Bind: To ensure adhesion in tissues.

C

• Contrast: To resist, cope. To show remarkable disagreement or opposition of one thing with another.
• Covet: To desire eagerly wealth and property.

Truth and Morality in Nietzsche's Philosophy

All works written after Thus Spoke Zarathustra are possessed by the idea of the "transmutation of all values." This means, first, that Nietzsche's thought passes through a fixed bed of issues and does not question itself. All the problems of philosophy are value problems for him; the actual nature of value, however, is not problematic.

The Axiological Perspective

Whenever the philosophy of the past reflects on being, Nietzsche secretly thinks it is guided by axiological points of view. It wants to escape "becoming," estimating the stable and permanent as superior, as the most valuable, and as the real thing.

The Value of Truth

Nietzsche is annoyed by the unresolved question regarding the value of truth—a... Continue reading "Nietzsche: Truth, Morality, and the Will to Power" »

Descartes' Method in Discourse on the Method

The fragment discusses the second part of René Descartes' Discourse on the Method, where he details his systematic approach to knowledge acquisition. Descartes establishes a set of easily applicable rules intended to achieve strict and accurate indubitable truths.

The Four Rules of Descartes' Method

This method consists of four essential steps:

1. Evidence: This is the criterion for truth. For Descartes, the first precept requires admitting only what is known with evidence. Truth is only what is presented with clarity and distinction.
2. Analysis: In this second step, Descartes proposes dividing complex problems into as many smaller parts as possible to examine each component thoroughly. These simple divisions

The Possibility of Metaphysics as Science

The problem of metaphysics concerns the possibility of rigorous scientific knowledge about God, freedom, or immortality. Metaphysics faces inherent deficiencies that place it at a disadvantage in relation to empirical science:

• Science progresses, while metaphysics often does not.
• Scientists generally agree on their theories and conclusions, whereas disagreement is common among metaphysicians.

The question arises: Can metaphysics be constructed like the sciences? If the answer is yes, then this deplorable state can be overcome. If not, perhaps it is better to abandon the construction of metaphysical systems.

To clarify whether metaphysics is possible as a science, a prior question must be addressed: How is

The Organization of the State as the Subject of DC

Here we are interested in developing the idea that when we speak of an authority that can be imposed, we believe it is political power, which has the capacity to decide and implement the standards. Political power has a monopoly on force in a community where violent acts are used to achieve social peace. Speaking of state power, we must also discuss an approach to organization, which consists of rules governing the operation of that power and even its monopoly. The criteria affecting the organization of the State are of three types:

1. Historico-Empirical Type (Heller)

This approach takes its reference from the anthropological features that occur in different social groups. The basic idea is that... Continue reading "Understanding State Organization and Political Power Dynamics" »

Permanent Disability

Permanent disability refers to a situation in which a worker, after undergoing the prescribed treatment, experiences serious anatomical or functional reductions. These reductions are objectively determinable, definitive, and expected to reduce or nullify their ability to work.

Grades of Permanent Disability

• Partial Disability: Does not decrease below 33% in the employee's normal performance for their usual job and they can perform the essential functions of the same.
• Total Disability: Inability to perform all basic tasks of the usual occupation, but the individual may engage in a different one.
• Absolute Disability: Disables the employee from performing any profession.
• Major Disability: The resulting losses from anatomical and