Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Affirming Life

Nietzsche seeks to affirm life, accepting it as it is: a spontaneous instinct that manifests as a struggle of forces where some are created and others are destroyed, where nothing is permanent. Life is a creative force, asserting the will to power, which is the desire to live (vital force). In his critique of philosophy, Nietzsche states that decadence starts with Socrates and is reflected in the traditional concepts of Western culture, which is a reflection of Platonic Dualism.

Nihilism

Nihilism is a consequence of the decadence of Western culture, which has fundamentally denied life and affirmed nothing. There are two types of nihilism:

• Passive Nihilism: This is the discovery that all cultural values are false and everything Western

Introduction to British Empiricism

Empiricism is a significant philosophical tradition in English thought. While it critiques rationalism, both share common ground as heirs of Cartesian philosophy, focusing on 'ideas' as fundamental to understanding.

Metaphysics Critiqued

Hume critiques metaphysical ideas, particularly the concept of substance in its extensive, thoughtful, and infinite aspects.

Critique of the Idea of God

Hume argues against causal inferences for God's existence, asserting that such arguments illegitimately move from impressions to non-impressions. He posits that valid ideas must originate from impressions; otherwise, they should be rejected.

Impact of Causality Criticism

The empiricist criterion, limiting certain ideas to impressions,... Continue reading "British Empiricism: Hume's Critique of Metaphysics, Self, and God" »

Historical Context of Immanuel Kant's Philosophy

Immanuel Kant, who famously never left Königsberg, developed his philosophy in response to the major intellectual and political movements of his time:

• Enlightenment Thought: The central intellectual movement emphasizing reason and individualism.
• Publication of the Encyclopédie (1751), a monumental work that synthesized the knowledge of the era.
• Monarchical support for the promotion of arts and sciences.
• Scientific and technical progress and its consequences:
  • The Industrial Revolution
  • The emergence of the proletariat (working class)
• Major political upheavals: The American Revolution (1776) and the French Revolution (1789).

The Core Tenets of Enlightenment Thinking

Kant believed in a new way of thinking... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant's Historical and Intellectual Background" »

Descartes' Quest for Certainty

René Descartes states that the existence of the thinking self is a truth so strong and secure that even the extravagant assumptions of skeptics were unable to shake it. He argues that from the cogito, ergo sum (I think, therefore I am), there is an intuitive and immediate apprehension of this truth.

The Purpose of Cartesian Doubt

What is the meaning, truth, and purpose of Cartesian doubt? The goal is to achieve a sure and certain knowledge, built by our reason, that can be trusted beyond all doubt.

Descartes' Method: Four Rules

Descartes proposed a methodical approach to acquiring knowledge, consisting of four rules:

1. Rule of Evidence: To accept nothing as true which I do not clearly recognize to be so, avoiding precipitation

Karl Marx: Historical Materialism

Like Hegel, Marx shared the idea that reality is not static, but dynamic and changing, full of contradictions that compel it to transform. He understood this dynamic as a product of material forces and relations (unlike Hegel) that occur in reality. Marx, unlike Hegel's idealism, chose a materialistic position.

This materialism does not represent ideologies that determine a concrete reality, but conversely, it is the material reality that produces its own ideology. The cultural conditioning, religion, customs, and morals of a community are shaped by specific economic relationships and tensions within its production system. In other words, it is not ideas or the spirit that construct reality and history, but the... Continue reading "Karl Marx: Dialectical Materialism and the Vision of Communism" »

Language: More Than a Tool

Language is a means, but not merely a tool that consciousness uses to communicate with the world. There is a third instrument next to the sign and the tool – something that also belongs to the essential definition of man. Language is not a means or a tool. Because 'means' essentially implies mastering tool use; that is, we take it in hand and once we have run their service. Not so when we mouth the words of a language and let them be used from the general vocabulary at our disposal. That analogy is wrong because we never face the world as a consciousness that, in a state of language, uses the tool of consensus.

Language Shapes Knowledge and Being

The knowledge of ourselves and the world is invariably language, our

The Concept of Person

The word "person" comes from the Greek prosopon, which translates as "mask." The Greeks used it to refer to someone's appearance or figure, behind which the true self was hidden. The term was introduced into Christianity to refer to the individual and specific character of each human being, contrasting with the undifferentiated nature of people in antiquity. In this sense, Boethius defined a person as "an individual substance of a rational nature." Kant pointed out that to be a person is to be primarily free, i.e., able to be autonomous or self-legislating. In the twentieth century, philosophers established that the concept of person must be the key and central theme around which all philosophical reflection revolves. Philosophical... Continue reading "Understanding the Human Person: Philosophical Perspectives" »

1. Space and Time: The A Priori Forms of Sensible Intuition

Space and time are a priori forms, formal elements that affect the subject, as space and time are pure intuitions. Every sensation is multifaceted and occurs in space and time. Space is not an empirical concept; it is the condition of the possibility of phenomena. Besides, finite magnitude in space is to geometry as time is to arithmetic. We understand geometry as synthetic knowledge a priori. Therefore, space is not a property of things in themselves but the way the phenomena of the external senses appear to us.

Time is the basis for all intuitions, so different times are not simultaneous but successive. It is a pure form of sensible intuition and is a unique time. Therefore, these... Continue reading "Kant's Transcendental Philosophy: A Priori Forms and Practical Reason" »

Descartes on Clarity and Distinction

For René Descartes, clarity and distinction are key features of evidence, signifying knowledge present to the mind. He considered knowledge genuine only if it met both characteristics:

• It is clear: Present and accessible to the attentive mind.
• It is distinct: Precise and separated from all other objects, containing only what is clear within itself.

Knowledge must possess both clarity and distinction to serve as a reliable foundation.

Descartes' Criterion of Truth

The criterion Descartes established to determine the truth of our beliefs is evidence: true propositions are those that present themselves to the intellect as clear and distinct. An approach involves the requirement or standard used for evaluating something;... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Descartes' Philosophy: Mind, Truth, and Reality" »

Societal Norms: Law, Morality, and Social Mores

Currently, standards or rules of conduct that regulate personal and social behavior are grouped into distinct regulatory codes, each possessing unique characteristics. This situation has arisen from the growing complexity of social life, where each organization often develops its own code of standards, leading to a multiplicity of normative frameworks. Among these various codes, three have always been emphasized: law, morality, and social mores. The primary purpose of these codes has been to align individual behaviors with a model of "official" or accepted conduct. Consequently, they have served as the main agents of control and organization within social life.

Systematic Relationship: Law, Morality,