Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Feature Articles: Amplifying Core Facts

Feature articles amplify news, ensuring their content focuses on fundamental facts. The report aims to emphasize the traits of a fact, specifying the circumstances and environment that frame it. Its structure is more open than that of a standard news report.

The Interview: Methods and Genres

An interview can be understood in two ways: as a method of investigation or as a journalistic genre.

Interview as Investigation Method

The reporter seeks out people who can provide documented information for a subsequent report.

Interview as Journalistic Genre

This genre is more limited, as it focuses on collecting information from a single source. This can be a biographical interview or an informative interview. The typical... Continue reading "Journalistic Genres: Understanding Media Content Forms" »

Augustine of Hippo (354-430 AD)

Augustine of Hippo, born in Tagaste in 354 AD, explored the relationship between faith and reason.

Faith and Reason: Credo ut intelligam (Believe in Order to Understand)

Augustine sought absolute truth, navigating through Manichaeism and the skepticism of the Platonic Academy before embracing Christianity. Influenced by Neoplatonism, he developed a theory asserting that divine illumination, stemming from innate ideas implanted by God, guides the soul. To maintain this inner light, faith and obedience to God are essential.

Faith, according to Augustine, is not irrational but rather a supernatural and divine source of knowledge obtained through illumination. Through faith, we gain understanding that would otherwise... Continue reading "Augustine & Aquinas: Faith, Reason, and the Existence of God" »

Principles of Social Work

Human Rights and Human Dignity

Social work is based on respect for the inherent worth and dignity of every person, and the rights arising therefrom. Social workers should uphold and defend the integrity and physical, psychological, emotional, and spiritual development of each person. This means:

1. Respecting the right to self-determination: Social workers should respect and promote the right of individuals to choose for themselves and make their own decisions, regardless of their values and life choices, provided they do not threaten the rights and legitimate interests of others.
2. Promoting the right to participation: Social workers should promote the full commitment and involvement of users to empower them in making decisions

The Political and Cultural Superstructure

The economic basis of society supports the political and cultural superstructure. This superstructure consists of two main structures:

• The Legal and Political Structure: This is the set of rules and laws determining social consciousness. This structure manifests as the State, which Marx views as a political instrument used by the exploiting class to subdue the exploited.
• The Ideological Structure: This is the set of ideas, beliefs, customs, and social consciousness.

While every class consciousness has a representation of reality, it is the consciousness of the ruling class that is projected onto the whole social fabric. These cultural forms are interpreted by Marx as ideologies. These ideologies serve... Continue reading "Karl Marx: Superstructure, Alienation, and the Power of Praxis" »

Rousseau: On Freedom and Equality

Historical Context

Jean-Jacques Rousseau belongs to the 18th century, a period dominated by the Enlightenment in both England and France. This era was characterized by full confidence in reason as the primary means to solve human problems.

Theme

The central theme of Rousseau's work, as presented here, is the importance of equality and freedom as the foundation of human coexistence.

Main Ideas

• Equality is necessary for liberty.
• Equality is central to human relations and respect for the State.
• Equality under the law prevents any form of slavery.

Relationship of Ideas

The individual transitions from a state of nature to civil society as a member of a group, yet remains free while subject to the general will, expressed through... Continue reading "Rousseau and Kant: Enlightenment Philosophers on Freedom and Equality" »

Plato: Core Philosophical Concepts

Context

Historical and Cultural Context

• Born 427 BCE.
• Peloponnesian War, Thirty Tyrants.
• Socrates condemned to death.
• Conflict between three powerful states.
• Influences: Aristophanes, Xenophon.
• Focus on beautiful style and education.
• Involvement with Dionysius II of Syracuse.

Philosophical Context

• Sophists: Rhetoric, Phenomenalism, Subjectivism, and Relativism.
• Socrates: Concept, inductive reasoning, moral intellectualism.
• Pre-Socratics: Pythagorean school (shared features with the Theory of Ideas), Parmenides (Being), Heraclitus (vision of the sensible world's becoming).
• Atomist mechanism.
• Theology close to Anaxagoras.

Topics

Five major topics addressed.

Relevance Today

• Education and values.
• Foundation of Human Rights.
• Prison

Humans: Theory of the Soul

Both philosophers believe in the duality of human beings. While for Plato, the human meaning is an accidental union between body and soul, for Aristotle, these two elements make up a substantial unity, where the body is matter and the soul is the form (Hilemorphism: man is the unit substantially).

Plato's Perspective

For Plato, the soul is the perfection that belongs to the world of ideas and possesses true knowledge. It has three parts: the rational (Auriga), the irascible (white horse), and the concupiscent (black horse). These three parts are explained in the myth of the winged chariot: when the soul loses control of the other parts, it is represented as a chariot that inhabits the world of ideas. In the world, it... Continue reading "Understanding the Duality of Human Existence" »

Aristotle and Teleological Ethics (Eudaemonism)

Aristotle (384–322 BC) is the main representative of teleological ethics. According to this philosopher, all human activities seek to achieve a particular, immediate good that is also a means to a higher, better end. The ultimate goal toward which all our actions are directed, and the greatest good to which humans can aspire, is the pursuit of happiness.

The Concept of Eudaemonism

In Greek, this happiness is called eudaimonia, which is why Aristotelian ethics is also known as eudaemonism.

Happiness as the Supreme Good

If happiness is the end aimed at by the individual, this means it must be a supreme good—a good thing always and without exception. Moreover, as the ultimate end, happiness must have... Continue reading "Aristotle's Eudaemonism: Defining Happiness and the Supreme Good" »

Chapter Two: Mill's Utilitarianism

Utility and Pleasure

1. Utility is not opposed to pleasure: This includes beauty, decoration, fun, etc.

2. Utility is not just pleasure: It also encompasses the release from pain.

Definition of Utility

Net: Moral foundation.

Pleasure and pain are not the ultimate ends of moral action.

Synopsis: Critique of Pig's Moral Theory

This theory ignores the specific pleasures of being human.

It focuses on the circumstantial advantages of intellectual pleasures.

Mill's Contribution

Mill argues for different qualities of pleasure.

Test for Higher Pleasures

Humans prefer higher pleasures (universal suffrage among those who know all pleasures).

Reason for Choosing Higher Pleasures

Some say it's due to pride, love of freedom, independence,... Continue reading "Mill's Utilitarianism: A Summary of Chapter Two" »

Reason and Faith: Augustine intensely explored the relationship between reason and faith. In his youth, he left the Church due to the perceived incompatibility between the two. However, upon his return, he insisted that intellectuals must not abandon their rational demands when embracing faith.

A) The Harmony of Reason and Faith: Augustine believed in a single truth illuminated by two sources: reason and faith. While faith is the more powerful source, leading to the fullness of truth, both are in harmony.

B) Distinct but Not Confused: Augustine clearly distinguished between reason and faith, a distinction accessible to everyone.

C) Collaborative Discovery of Truth: Augustine's formula, "Ut credas intelligas. Crede ut intelligas" ("Believe to understand.... Continue reading "Reason and Faith in Augustine's Philosophy" »