Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Hume on Causality and Kant's Response

David Hume argued that cause and effect cannot be discovered by reason, but only by experience. Any argument dependent on experience is based on the similarity discovered between objects in the past, leading us to expect similar effects in similar cases. Custom, therefore, leads us to believe events will repeat as they have previously. Confidence in the future is not based on reason, nor is it absolute security; it is merely a belief.

Immanuel Kant, responding partly to Hume, sought a solid foundation for Mathematical Physics. Judgments, Kant argued, should be synthetic (expanding our knowledge), yet also universal and necessary, valid in all circumstances and times. Science cannot rely solely on analytical... Continue reading "Kant's Synthesis of Empiricism and Rationalism" »

Kant's Philosophical Evolution

From Pre-Critical Metaphysics to Critical Inquiry

During the pre-critical period, Kant's metaphysics was considered a science capable of knowing transcendent objects located beyond all possible experience (such as noumena, God, soul, and the world as a whole). By 1765, after reading David Hume, Kant began to doubt whether metaphysics truly constituted scientific knowledge.

The intense reflection on the problem of metaphysics made Kant aware that a theory of knowledge must begin with a critique to ascertain the capabilities and limits of reason.

The Critique of Pure Reason: Core Questions

In Critique of Pure Reason (1781), the work that opens the critical period of his thought, Kant discusses the use of theoretical... Continue reading "Kant's Critical Philosophy: Knowledge, Morality, and Reason" »

ConoSentidos (Sensory Knowledge)

Sensory knowledge, like in the living area, incorporates living without the defined form. It sensitively captures perceived objects without material capture. Perception is accurate and characterizes existing qualities in the sensuous faculty in the world. The soul is the ability to receive forms, so instantly perception of the unit is a sensitive faculty that has taken shape.

ConoLogica (Logical Knowledge): The Syllogism

A study on investigations said that there was nothing prior to logic that deserves mention, so its creator is considered the founder of that branch of knowledge. If logic is not introduced in science, it is because it is considered an instrument for scientific knowledge, prior to science itself.... Continue reading "Aristotle's Philosophy: Knowledge, Logic, Ethics, and Happiness" »

Kant's Life in Historical Context

Kant lived in Prussia during the reign of Frederick the Great, the "philosopher king," whose form of government was enlightened despotism - "everything for the people, without the people" - with its promotion of social reforms. Internationally, momentous historical events occurred, such as the independence of the United States and its Constitution's proclamation, and the French Revolution (1789) - and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, which are the basis of the modern liberal sociocultural democratic framework. Socially, a crisis occurred between the aristocratic and hierarchical class society of the Old Regime and the triumphant bourgeoisie of the French Revolution. These were the main actors... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant: Life, Philosophy, and Historical Impact" »

The Ethics of Saint Thomas Aquinas

The ethics of Saint Thomas Aquinas has a teleological and eudaimonistic vision, asserting that the greatest happiness is the ultimate end of life. Aquinas states that maximum happiness is achieved through the contemplation of God; thus, life is directed towards this contemplation. It is a unifying vision that seeks union with God.

Natural Law and Moral Principles

Just as all life has a purpose, human beings also have one. This purpose allows for the inference of moral principles, using reason and principles given by natural understanding. These principles constitute Natural Law, which Aquinas describes as clear, universal, compulsory, and immutable.

Natural Law contains two fundamental principles:

• To do good and

The Philosophical Origins of Knowledge (Epistemology)

The fundamental problem of knowledge attempts to resolve the question: What is the source of our knowledge? Answers to this question have been proposed by different philosophical schools of thought:

1. Rationalism

   Key Proponents: Plato and René Descartes.

   Rationalists assert that true knowledge is innate, based on reason, and certain. Sensory experience provides only beliefs or opinions, never genuine knowledge. Proponents defend the conception of truth as coherence (internal consistency) and often use logical structures (like mathematics) as a model of connection.

   • They affirm the existence of innate ideas (ideas that do not come from experience).
   • These thinkers are often considered dogmatic. Modern

Material and Formal Ethics

In the realm of media, material ethics considers actions as good or bad depending on the aim pursued. Immanuel Kant rejects this view because:

• Its imperatives are not universal.
• They are hypothetical, holding value only if we accept the good they seek as inherently good.
• They are heteronomous, meaning that humans determine what is good or bad.

In contrast, formal ethics views behaviors as inherently good or bad in themselves.

• It does not establish any ultimate good that humans should pursue.
• It merely dictates how we should act to behave morally, not the specific acts themselves.

Thus, moral principles are universal, necessary, and immutable.

Natural Law vs. Positivism

Natural Law is a legal tradition within the philosophy... Continue reading "Material vs. Formal Ethics, Social Origins, and Political Philosophy" »

Scientific Knowledge: Core Concepts

Scientific knowledge is built upon specific characteristics, a unique language, and rigorous methodologies.

Characteristics of Scientific Knowledge

• Neutrality or Absence of Prejudices: Addressing serious issues without bias.
• Critical Spirit: A continuous questioning and evaluation of findings.
• Intersubjectivity: The demand for shared understanding and verifiable results among different observers.

The Scientific Revolution (16th and 17th Centuries)

This period marked science's independence from philosophy. Early modern scientists included Kepler, Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton.

Key Characteristics of the Scientific Revolution:

• Experimentation: Observation plays a crucial role, but not all phenomena are observable

Metaphysics: Ontology and Epistemology

The transition from ontology to epistemology involves two fundamental concepts, two categories that ontology should clarify: real and unreal.

This leads us into the second part of metaphysics, epistemology, also known as the theory of knowledge, which studies the relations between the knower and the known object.

Understanding Reality: Real vs. Unreal

Real is that which exists independently of what someone is experiencing or knowing. What exists can impose limitations. Physical phenomena are considered real.

Conscious phenomena, for example, are not real in the same sense as a physical body. They exist only while one is consciously aware of them. Appearance introduces a new form of reality. It seems that, compared... Continue reading "Metaphysics: Ontology, Epistemology, and the Concept of God" »

What Are Incoterms and When Are They Used?

Incoterms are defined and developed by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), with the aim of establishing a standardized language that can be used by buyers and sellers involved in international business.

Key Incoterms Explained

EXW - Ex Works

The seller's only responsibility is to make the goods available to the buyer at the seller's premises (factory, warehouse, etc.). The buyer bears all costs and risks from that point.

FCA - Free Carrier

The seller must deliver the goods, cleared for export, to the carrier or another person nominated by the buyer at the named place. The seller loads the goods if delivery occurs at the seller's premises.

FAS - Free Alongside Ship

The seller is responsible for placing