Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

An Approach to Ethics and Morals

The Etymology of Ethics

The word ethics comes from the Greek and has two meanings. The first term comes from the word ethos, meaning custom or habit. Later, this originated from the word ēthos, which means way of life or character. Aristotle believed that the two words are inseparable. Ethics lies in the moral conscience of every human being and serves as an engine, brake, or steering wheel, as appropriate, for the time of action.

Understanding the Scope of Ethics

Ethics is a concept that encompasses a variety of meanings. The word ethos has a much broader sense than that given to the word ethics. Ethics includes the disposition of man in life, character, custom, and morals. We could translate it as "the mode or... Continue reading "Ethics and Morality: Understanding the Principles" »

The Death of God: A Critique of Western Metaphysics and Culture

The concept of the "death of God" in Nietzsche's philosophy represents a profound critique of traditional Western values, particularly those rooted in Christianity. Nietzsche viewed Christianity as a form of "vulgar Platonism," characterized by a fundamental division between two realms:

• The external, "real" world: This is the transcendent, otherworldly realm, often associated with the afterlife or the Platonic world of perfect, eternal Forms.
• The internal, "illusory" world: This is the earthly, imperfect realm of sensory experience.

Nietzsche argued that this Platonic-Christian worldview has had a pervasive influence on Western thought, tracing a clear line of continuity from Plato'... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: Death of God and the Superman" »

This document delves into one of the initial chapters of Immanuel Kant's seminal work, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. Here, Kant analyzes ethics as it manifests in sound natural understanding, without needing formal instruction.

The Concept of Good Will

Kant states that an absolutely good will is one with which we act. According to Kant, a good will is achieved independently of whether its purposes are realized, provided the effort is made to attain it.

Duty and Moral Action

To clarify the concept of good will, Kant introduces the concept of duty, distinguishing between different types of actions:

• Actions conforming to duty: Performed in accordance with duty, but potentially for ulterior motives.
• Actions done from duty: Performed purely

Human Origins and Development

Creationism vs. Evolution

Creationism posits the separate and final creation of all living species. In contrast, Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859) introduced the concept of evolution, where species undergo continuous transformations through natural selection. Mendel's work on biological inheritance further refined our understanding of how traits are passed down. Modern evolutionary theory combines natural selection with mutations.

Theories of Human Origin

There are several theories regarding the origin of our species. The multiregional theory (Wolpoff) suggests that Homo sapiens arose from different prehistoric populations worldwide through continuous gene flow. The "Out of Africa" theory (Stringer)... Continue reading "Human Evolution, Culture, and Behavior" »

Descartes's Quest for Knowledge and Method

Our understanding of reality stems from various sources. While empiricism posits that knowledge originates from our senses, rationalism asserts that true and valid knowledge about reality is derived from reason. This rationalist perspective, particularly as championed by René Descartes, is deeply connected with the foundational ideas of modern science, emphasizing deduction. For Descartes, our knowledge of reality can be established deductively from certain self-evident ideas and principles, which he considered innate.

Background to Descartes's Philosophy

• 1. Motivations for a New Method

  • Negative Motivation: Descartes was critical of his contemporary educational environment, which he found to be based

What is History?

History is a social science that studies human life in society, considering the space and time in which they live. It uses a specific method and selects documents to develop historical knowledge. Historians define their object of study and then select and define the documents they will use. These documents can include oral testimonies, material remains, written documents, etc. Space and time are key to the historian, as human societies occupy a space and exist within a given time that influences them.

• It is a social science.
• Based on documents from the past: evidence, letters, testimonies, images, and fossil remains.
• Space and time are key.
• Hypothesis, observation, experiment, conclusion, or theory.

Reflection on the Meaning of Studying

Karl Marx: A Materialist Perspective

The Essence of Man

Marx argues that the essence of man lies in work, emphasizing our material relationship with nature and others. While this perspective holds merit, it overlooks the sentimental aspect of human existence. Family bonds, for example, are not solely material but deeply emotional. However, I agree with Marx's assertion that humans must produce their livelihoods; acquiring goods or food necessitates work.

Alienation of the Worker

Marx's theory of alienation posits that workers are alienated from the product and process of their labor. Forced to sell their labor power for survival, they lose control over their work and themselves. This resonates with the current reality where unskilled workers... Continue reading "Karl Marx and Friedrich Nietzsche: A Comparative Analysis" »

Thales of Miletus

Little remains of Thales's original writings, but his views are widely referenced. He theorized that water is the fundamental principle of all things. He also believed the Earth was motionless, floating on water.

Anaximander of Miletus

Anaximander followed a similar philosophical path, interpreting the relationship between humanity and the cosmos. He introduced the concept of Apeiron (the boundless or indefinite) as the fundamental principle of existence, containing the cause of birth and destruction throughout the world.

Anaximenes of Miletus

Also from Miletus, Anaximenes proposed air as the foundational element of all things. He theorized that the varying densities of air, through condensation and rarefaction, give rise to the... Continue reading "Foundational Ideas of Early Greek Philosophy" »

Kant's Distinctions: Phenomenon and Noumenon

Kant presented in detail the distinction between phenomenon and noumenon, and on the other hand, the distinction between knowing and thinking.

1. Only phenomena we know, what appears to us in sensible intuition:
   1. Our knowledge of phenomena is the result of a double synthesis: the first level of sensitivity between the data of experience (sensory impressions) and the a priori forms of sensibility: Space and Time; the second between the spatially and temporally organized data and understanding, the concepts or categories.
2. Our theoretical knowledge is limited to objects of experience, to what is shown to us, so that any application of the categories to that of which I have no experience does not produce knowledge.

The Hegelian Dialectic

Kant argues that there is only technological progress, not moral. Hegel takes up these ideas, stating that there is moral progress as a result of history. History is dialectical; it works reasonably well with the triad thesis-antithesis-synthesis. Any statement in itself implies a negation, so the whole thesis generates an antithesis. These confront each other. The confrontation can only be overcome by another phase: synthesis. The synthesis is a time where we integrate the best, most rational aspects of the thesis and the antithesis. The synthesis generates a new thesis, and therefore another antithesis. It forms a chain, but Hegel says that there will be a final synthesis. This process is history. Each new synthesis... Continue reading "Hegel's Dialectic and Marx's Class Struggle" »