Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The Nature of Reality

1) Common Sense Realism: There is a real, external world perceived through our senses and analyzed by science.

2) Skepticism: Our senses may not provide a reliable picture of the outside world, sometimes deceiving us with illusions.

3) Idealism: When we analyze the world, we only have our ideas about it. There is only the universe of our minds and perceptions.

4) Phenomenalism: It is not possible to provide a general picture of the world. The real world is the set of sensory phenomena and perceptions.

Metaphysics

Metaphysics is the study of the fundamental features of reality and being.

Metaphysical Traits

1) Knowledge of Principles: Metaphysics analyzes the first principles of reality, from which all other principles are derived,... Continue reading "Understanding Reality: Metaphysics, God, and the World" »

Theories of Truth

The Correspondence Theory

Truth is achieved when a statement matches reality. For centuries, this has been considered the most reliable way to ascertain truth. However, when reality is not material, truth becomes more subjective. Truth can never be subjective.

The Coherence Theory

Truth lies in consistency and the absence of contradictions within a set of statements. Logic is essential to determine consistency. Any change in information must maintain coherence. Hegel believed that truth encompasses everything. One ideal of science is to integrate all existing scientific theories.

The Pragmatic Theory

Truth is what produces useful results. This aligns with the idea that the end justifies the means, making it an a posteriori theory... Continue reading "Theories of Truth and the Possibility of Knowledge" »

Xenophanes

Xenophanes: After the Persians destroyed his hometown, he fled to Greece and traveled extensively, including visits to Elea. He was a singer who used satire in his work. He argued that anthropomorphism does not support religion and advocated a form of pantheism, stating that God and the cosmos are the same. According to him, God is unique, eternal, and immobile despite all the changes. His concept of Arche is the foundation and cause of all things. He attributed the cause of fossils to the fluctuations of sea levels.

The Pythagoreans

The Pythagoreans: Born in Samos, they moved to Crotona. The driving force behind their philosophy was the desire to save their immortal soul and escape the divine cycle of reincarnations. To free the soul... Continue reading "Pre-Socratic Philosophers: Xenophanes, Pythagoreans, and Heraclitus" »

Understanding Morality

Moral People: Moral problems arise, and they want to justify their behavior with reasoned decisions and actions.

Immoral People: They recognize the norms and values of society but infringe upon them by putting themselves in front, just abiding by the rules if it follows a profit.

Demoralized People: These are those who have learned moral failures due to a lack of courage.

Amoral People: They are indifferent to any moral question; if they get economic performance, anything goes.

Three Important Considerations of Happiness

• We cannot find happiness by chance; happiness is the result of a search.
• The finding of happiness depends on ourselves and the circumstances.
• Each of us can understand happiness in different ways.

To Be Happy

• We

The origins of ethical relativism can be traced back to the Homeric poems, specifically the Iliad and the Odyssey. These poems suggest a lack of universal moral values. Socrates challenged this view, asserting the existence of inherent moral values, a concept he explored through the Socratic method.

Moral Relativism

Moral relativism posits that principles of right and wrong are subjective and can only be found within each individual or group. Right and good are always relative to a specific group. This idea originated in Greece with the Sophists, notably Protagoras.

Related Positions to Relativism

• Cultural Relativism
• Contextual Relativism
• Ethnocentrism

Skepticism

Skepticism, as articulated by Pyrrho, suggests that we cannot find any reliable criterion... Continue reading "Ethical Relativism, Skepticism, and Moral Autonomy" »

Ethics and Values in Social Work

Ethics

Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with morality and human duties. It explores the concept of "a must" that aligns with human nature and addresses the demand for universal values.

Moral Values

Moral values are norms and behaviors that guide human obligations in their interactions with each other and society.

Values

Values represent the ideal ways of being or acting for individuals or communities. They serve as goals and relate to culture, contributing to the common good. Values carry an emotional weight, enabling individuals to prioritize them over personal desires.

Beliefs

Beliefs signify a strong conviction and adherence to something, fully accepting an event or news as true. Unlike values, beliefs... Continue reading "Ethics, Values, and Social Work: A Comprehensive Guide" »

Mutation

If mutations are harmful, less fit individuals are eliminated by natural selection.

Synthetic Theory of Evolution

This modern theory of evolution, also called Neo-Darwinism, is currently the most accepted theory to explain the evolutionary processes of any population. Modern scientists argue that all biological organization, starting from the molecular level, has gone through an evolutionary process. Natural selection acting on genetic variation remains the way evolutionary changes manifest.

Development of the Theory of Evolution

In the late nineteenth century, the so-called primitive Neo-Darwinism, which is based on the principle of natural selection as the basis of evolution, found in the German biologist A. Weismann one of its main exponents.... Continue reading "Understanding Evolution: From Darwin to Neo-Darwinism" »

Descartes' Method and the Crisis of Knowledge

René Descartes' fundamental objective was to establish order in a world where everything was questioned. Cartesianism arose as an attempt to solve the crisis caused by the emergence of new science and the decline of scholasticism. Thinkers needed a new criterion for truth. While Francis Bacon argued that this criterion must be experience, Descartes posited that reason should establish this new approach through a method.

Descartes' Method: Four Key Rules

Descartes outlined a rational method as a set of rules, certain and easy to observe, that would prevent anyone from accepting falsehoods as truths. These rules can be summarized as follows:

1. Evidence: Accept only ideas known with absolute certainty

Aristotle on Happiness and Contemplative Life

Aristotle identifies happiness with purely intellectual activity or contemplative life. While not excluding other virtues, Aristotle privileges intellectual virtues over moral virtues. He argues that intellectual pursuits require fewer external goods, making them less susceptible to the vagaries of fortune and the risks of scarcity. Indeed, Aristotle states, "The wise is sufficient unto itself and does not need anything or anyone to be happy."

The Polis and the Good Life

For Aristotle, the polis (city-state) serves a higher purpose than the family or the village. It is not merely concerned with biological needs or the satisfaction of immediate vital necessities, but with living well. This "living well"... Continue reading "Aristotle's Philosophy: Happiness, Virtue, and the Polis" »

Character Analysis of a Post-War Drama

Mario

Mario initially appears as the defeated and innocent victim of the war. However, it is important not to oversimplify his character. Mario exemplifies the contemplative individual whose defeatist and skeptical nature leads him to abstain from participating in the struggle. He chooses to remain marginalized, voluntarily bribed by ethical imperatives (113, analysis of the functioning of society, and reply to Mario). Vicente likens his idealism to that of Don Quixote, but unlike the literary figure, Mario did act. Nevertheless, he recognizes his mistake in the end, acknowledging his inaction and selfishness. He represents a breath of hope in his quest for transcendence, a trait inherited from his father.... Continue reading "Characters in a Post-War Drama: Analysis & Symbolism" »