Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Plato's Metaphysics: The Theory of Two Worlds

Plato's metaphysics presents a dualistic conception of reality. He proposes the existence of two distinct worlds:

• The sensible world (physical): This is the world we perceive through our senses. It is a world of constant change and imperfection.
• The metaphysical world (World of Ideas or Forms): This world is composed of perfect, immaterial, immutable, and incorruptible entities called "Ideas" or "Forms." These Ideas are not merely concepts but have their own independent existence.

The World of Ideas is intelligible, meaning we can access it through pure reason, not through the senses. It contains:

• Mathematical concepts (numbers, etc.)
• General concepts relating to the physical world (animal, sun, clouds,

This text delves into the philosophy of René Descartes, a prominent figure born in 1596 in Touraine, France, who passed away in 1650 in Sweden. He is recognized as one of the leading representatives of Modern Philosophy and is widely considered the father of Rationalism. His most important work, Discourse on Method, outlines the necessity for a new philosophical method, fundamentally based on mathematical deduction. Other significant works include Meditations on First Philosophy (often referred to as Metaphysical Meditations), Treatise on the World, Principles of Philosophy, and Rules for the Direction of the Mind. Descartes's thought emerged as a significant outcome of the Humanist and Scientistic movements. He became the chief representative... Continue reading "René Descartes: Architect of Modern Rationalism" »

Animal and Human Intelligence: A Comparison

Is there a fundamental difference between animal and human intelligence? While animals demonstrate intelligence through tool use and problem-solving in their immediate environment, human intelligence exhibits a qualitative leap. Humans utilize abstract thought, signs, symbols, and conceptual design, allowing for the application of knowledge across diverse situations. Animals primarily operate on a stimulus-response model, whereas humans can generalize solutions. For example, a chimpanzee might learn to use a stick to obtain food, but a human can apply the concept of leverage in countless scenarios.

The Cultural Animal

Humans are uniquely defined by their dual nature: biological beings shaped by cultural... Continue reading "Human vs Animal Intelligence & Society Evolution" »

Ethics and Morality: The Science of Conduct

The distinction between morality and ethics, though sometimes considered artificial, is based on its undoubted utility. Morality refers to the set of behaviors, norms, and values that govern a society at a given moment. Ethics, conversely, is the theoretical reflection on the behaviors, norms, and values that shape morality.

Understanding the Moral Act

Actions that are likely to be approved or rejected by society are considered acts of moral evaluation. For an act to be considered morally accountable, it must possess specific characteristics:

• An act is aware when the subject clearly knows what they are doing.
• An act is voluntary when the subject intends to do what they do and chooses from several options.

Rationalism vs. Empiricism

To the rationalist, metaphysics was the body of knowledge to which man can reach by his own lights, sound as a carrier of these ideas since birth. These innate ideas are embedded in humans and can be discovered without the help of experience, just by thinking. For rationalists, the metaphysical has to develop and organize the rest of knowledge, based on innate and obvious truths.

For the empiricist, all knowledge comes from outside, from what our senses pick up. So for them, there are no innate ideas, but a mind, initially 'virgin', in which experience is typed. They denied any possibility of metaphysics, and dogmatism and moral consequences are derived from all of this. In denying the metaphysical, everything is reduced... Continue reading "Kant's Critical Philosophy: Bridging Rationalism and Empiricism" »

Formal Ethics: A Deontological Approach

Formal ethics, often associated with Kant, focuses on the inherent rightness or wrongness of actions, irrespective of their purposes or consequences. Unlike theological ethics, Kantian ethics emphasizes duty as the sole criterion for ethical action. It's a deontological approach, meaning morality stems from obligation. Acting ethically means acting out of duty, transcending personal interests.

Emotive Ethics: The Role of Emotions in Moral Judgments

Emotivism posits that moral judgments originate from emotions. This theory suggests that morality lies outside the realm of rational knowledge. Moral rules and judgments arise from feelings of approval or rejection triggered by certain actions or experiences.... Continue reading "Understanding Formal, Emotive, and Productive Work Ethics" »

Descartes' Philosophical Context and Major Works

Animals are capable of carnal love, and we were like trees, sensitive beings. If objects could not love, anything that has movement and feeling could. But as we are men, created in the image of our Creator, who is the eternal truth, eternal and true love, we are able to return there in the triple form of human nature, as the image of God. "I am, I know, I want to be."

René Descartes was born in 1596. He studied at the Jesuit college of La Flèche. After graduation, he decided to learn from the "great book of the world." In 1619, he embarked on a search for truth through the use of reason. His most important works are:

• Rules for the Direction of the Spirit: An unfinished work containing twenty-one

The Dawn of Modern Philosophy

Renaissance Thought, spanning from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century, marked the pivotal transition from medieval to modern philosophy. It was profoundly characterized by a humanistic turn.

From Divine to Human Focus

During this period, God and Christianity ceased to be the sole central points of thought, giving rise to humans as the primary focus. Concurrently, the Church began to lose its exclusive authority in intellectual matters.

Medieval Roots and Renaissance Reactions

The early Middle Ages had limited knowledge of Greek sources, and the period was largely influenced by the Platonism of St. Augustine's extensive work, and to a lesser extent, the Stoics, Skeptics, and Epicureans. However, the late Middle... Continue reading "Renaissance Philosophy: Humanism, Science, and Intellectual Transformation" »

Philosophical Concepts: Ancient to Modern

Natural Concepts and Aristotelian Science

The natural concept, stemming from nominalist philosophy, applies across all fields. Natural science, in this view, distinguishes itself from Aristotelian science. For Aristotle, nature was the principle of movement; a being is natural if it possesses life.

Ockham and Mathematical Thinking

Ockham's mathematical thinking, influenced by Galilean motion, posits that narrative events (symbols) must be measurable and expressible mathematically. He sought the laws of phenomena, believing that true nature reveals itself. Ockham suggested that our mind is limited, while God is unlimited (or perhaps we do not know God, or we are gods). The human mind can only grasp things... Continue reading "Philosophical Foundations: From Ancient Ideas to Modern Science" »

1. Descartes' Methodical Doubt

Overcoming Doubt

Descartes' methodical doubt, unlike radical skepticism, is provisional. The goal is to find a truth that is undeniable.

The Purpose

Descartes' method begins with a diagnosis applied to the era. Humanity is like a sick man who must free himself from his sickness. Descartes decides that the path to truth must undergo a destructive critique of everything we know with certainty.

The Method

Descartes' method is like having faith in critique. It is a seemingly impossible task. He asks skeptical questions, directly attacking the foundations of our knowledge. He applies skepticism to doubt our senses and reason.

1.1 First Argument: Senses and Reason

We cannot trust our senses because they often deceive us (e.... Continue reading "Methodical Doubt in Descartes' Philosophy" »