Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Cultural Context

Romanticism

Romanticism became the banner of the youth who wanted to spread the revolutionary spirit in politics, philosophy, literature, and the arts. This movement was a cry for freedom, both socially and artistically. The themes, cutting idealistic people, are the exaltation of the individual and privacy.

Artists from this period include Delacroix in painting, Chopin in music, and Victor Hugo in theater. Romanticism idealized history, society, and nature. For this reason, they were branded as evasive and replaced by realism.

Realism

Realism is an art movement concerned with the concrete reality of human beings. Thus, the usual topics are everyday life or the harsh conditions of workers.

In science and technology came breakthroughs... Continue reading "Romanticism, Realism, and Marxism: 19th Century Europe" »

Machiavelli's Political Philosophy

What Characteristics Did Machiavelli Attribute to Government?

• A ruler must not prioritize the perceived goodness of people.
• To govern effectively, a ruler may need to act against conventional notions of charity.
• A ruler must act independently, discerning what is truly beneficial or detrimental, according to the circumstances.

Note: Machiavelli's use of terms like "inhuman" or "infidel" should be understood within the historical context of his time and may not reflect modern ethical standards.

What is the Relationship Between Ethics and Politics According to Machiavelli?

Machiavelli posits that ethics and politics are entirely separate. He emphasizes political realism, suggesting that political action often necessitates... Continue reading "Machiavelli's Political Philosophy and Key Concepts in Governance" »

The Quest for Explanations: Beauty and Forces of Nature

The need to find explanations for the beauty of the cosmos and the forces of nature is a fundamental human drive. The inability to find appropriate responses can produce a confusion difficult to bear. To alleviate this anxiety and intellectual restlessness, the first explanations arose from mythology and religion. Nietzsche claimed that human beings preferred nothingness to a lack of belief, and any explanation was better than none.

Judeo-Christian Legend

These explanations appear in the Bible. This work tells that God created the earth in succession: the firmament, the seas, plants, stars, and finally, animals. His work culminated with the creation of man, who was in charge and master of... Continue reading "Origins of the Universe: From Mythology to Modern Science" »

Federico García Lorca's Blood Wedding: An Introduction

Blood Wedding, a tragedy in verse by the Spanish writer Federico García Lorca, was written in 1931. This poetic and theatrical production delves into the analysis of a profound tragic sense, universally framed within the evocative Andalusian landscape. A central theme explored in this powerful drama is the interplay between life and death. Love emerges as the sole force capable of confronting death.

The Central Conflict: A Wedding Betrayed

The work's primary argument revolves around an upcoming wedding set to unite the Bridegroom with the Bride. However, tragedy intervenes, preventing the marriage from being consummated. The Bride, who had suppressed her love for Leonardo, experiences a... Continue reading "Federico García Lorca's Blood Wedding: Themes and Conflict" »

Descartes' Proofs for God's Existence

It is necessary to prove the existence of God without reference to the outside world, only from the analysis of my ideas.

Arguments from the Idea of God

The "cogito ergo sum" gives us the assurance that there are ideas in my mind but does not give us certainty if the objects they represent remain in external reality or not.

The ideas are not different if considered from the point of view of their subjective reality, but when considered from the objective point of view, they are very different from each other.

All these ideas are "caused," and "it is clear that there must be at least as much reality in the cause as in the effect."

The ideas that represent other people or natural things contain nothing so perfect... Continue reading "Descartes on the Existence of God" »

Kantian Ethical Formalism

Kantian ethical formalism centers on key characteristics such as autonomy (autonomous ethics), duty (ethical duty), and a formal ethics. According to Kant, humans are sensitive and rational beings. As for reason, humans are free, setting universal purposes to guide their lives.

• Reason gives its own behavior and conduct law, leading to autonomous reason.
• Humans are also beings influenced by feelings.
• One thing is to act in conformity with duty, and another is to act from duty. An action can be done in conformity with duty, but for other purposes or interests.

The moral value lies in the good will, independent of empirical outcomes. Duty is the necessity of an action done out of respect for the law.

Communicative Ethics

Communicative... Continue reading "Key Ethical Frameworks: Kant, Rawls, Hedonism, Utilitarianism" »

Core Vocabulary & Actions

• Cede/Concede: To transfer a thing, action, or right to another.
• Surrender: To give up; to undergo.
• Repair: To fix or mend.
• Beware: To be cautious or wary of; to notice a thing.
• Fix: To make stable or permanent; to repair.
• Frenzy: A state of wild excitement or uncontrolled activity; madness.
• Encourage: To give support, confidence, or hope.
• Large Exaltation: A state of great praise or elevation.
• Thrive: To grow or develop well; to prosper; to increase in size.
• Improve: To make or become better; to progress.
• Prosper: To succeed in material terms; to make money.
• Spur: To ease, incite, or encourage someone to do something. Example: To chop with the spur to the horse.
• Patent: A document granting a right or permission for something.

The problem of reality and the problem of knowledge are intimately related; it is not possible to separate them. Plato argues that true knowledge must possess characteristics of objectivity and universality.

In his attempt to find the concepts or definitions of virtue as a basis for moral practice, Plato realized that the objects of sense perception are constantly changing (in a state of flux), and therefore these objects cannot be given a definition valid for all time. For this reason, science cannot be reduced to sensation, because science is objective, infallible, and universal knowledge. Plato does not accept that absolutely everything is subject to becoming, as the essence of things, i.e., the universal concept, escapes becoming.

Only the... Continue reading "Plato's Theory of Knowledge" »

Moral Relativism

Moral relativism posits that ethical principles are not universal. What is considered right or good is determined within each particular group and applies only to that group. Moral choices are incomparable across different groups due to varying traditions. Concepts of fair, unfair, good, and bad are always group-dependent, making it impossible to establish universally valid principles.

Relativistic Skepticism

Relativistic skepticism asserts that the lack of a universal criterion for choosing between options makes it impossible to distinguish between right and wrong, just and unjust. Despite this, decisions must be made, and rational justifications may be sought.

Socratic Intellectualism

Socratic intellectualism, an ethical theory,... Continue reading "Moral Relativism, Skepticism, and Socratic Ethics" »

Descartes' Methodic Doubt and the Cogito

This text introduces the doubts René Descartes systematically applied to everything surrounding him. He questioned everything derived from our senses, the pronouncements of the wise, and even mathematical certainties. Descartes initially suspected that everything he had ever believed might be deceptive. He pondered: if God is infinitely good and powerful, why would He allow us to be deceived? Or perhaps, he speculated, we are deceived by some malicious entity or for some unknown reason.

However, Descartes explained that one thing cannot be doubted: the act of thinking itself. He famously concluded, "Cogito ergo sum" – if he thinks, then he must exist. From this certainty arises the correspondence between... Continue reading "Descartes' Philosophy: Doubt, Mind, God, and Reality" »