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Aquinas: Reason, Faith, and Proofs of God's Existence

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Thomas Aquinas: Reason and Faith

Thomas Aquinas explores the relationship between reason and faith. His theology is based on this relationship, asserting that knowledge beyond reason or experience is accessible through revelation and reason. Theology, therefore, becomes a paramount science.

Rationalized Theology of Thomas Aquinas

  1. Faith and Reason are Distinct: Reason, based solely on experience, can solve problems within the realm of reality but cannot progress further without faith.
  2. Common Truths: There are three common truths: the existence of God, the immortality of the soul, and natural law ethics.
  3. No Conflict: Conflict between reason and faith is impossible. Apparent conflicts indicate either misinterpretation of reason or misunderstanding
... Continue reading "Aquinas: Reason, Faith, and Proofs of God's Existence" »

Descartes' Philosophy: Doubt and Divine Proofs

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Descartes' Methodological Doubt

Descartes' methodological doubt reflects a pivotal historical movement, aiming to establish a process for discovering the first indubitable truth. He presents a situation of crisis and disorientation in the pursuit of knowledge.

There are two key moments in this process:

  • Negative Moment: Suspending judgment on anything that can be doubted.
  • Positive Moment: The consequence of this doubt is the discovery of the first true and certain knowledge.

Central to this process are several hypotheses of doubt:

  • The Senses Hypothesis: Our senses sometimes deceive us, making them unreliable sources of knowledge.
  • The Dream Hypothesis: It's possible that everything we believe to be real is merely a dream.

These first two hypotheses primarily... Continue reading "Descartes' Philosophy: Doubt and Divine Proofs" »

Hume's Empiricism and the Illusion of Causality

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Hume's Critique of Causality

The Empirical Basis of Causality

Hume's analysis of causality stems from empirical observation. He argues that causality is a relationship established by the mind, based on the psychological mechanisms of habit and custom. Repeated experiences create habits, which in turn form our beliefs about the future. We expect events to repeat in the future based on past occurrences due to habit.

Causality and A Priori Knowledge

Hume asserts that causal relationships cannot be known a priori. Reasoning alone, without experience, cannot reveal cause-and-effect relationships. For example, analyzing the concept of 'fire' doesn't inherently include the notion of 'pain'. Causal relationships are not between ideas; our knowledge... Continue reading "Hume's Empiricism and the Illusion of Causality" »

Plato's Life, Philosophy, and Impact

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Plato: Life and Times

Plato was born around 428/427 BC and died in 347 BC in Athens. He was educated in the Spartan model. A disciple of Socrates, he witnessed his death. With the intention of combining philosophy and its application to policy, he left Athens and traveled to Egypt, where he assimilated mathematics. He also traveled to Megara and Syracuse, where he met Dion, who became his student. He founded the Academy in Athens, where he spent his last years, teaching music, mathematics, and the possibility of attaining absolute truth.

Political Vocation

Plato began searching for the ideal government because democracy was triumphant. Socrates' philosophical idealism clashed with the authorities, causing his unjust death. This drove Plato to... Continue reading "Plato's Life, Philosophy, and Impact" »

Ethics and Morality: Understanding the Principles

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An Approach to Ethics and Morals

The Etymology of Ethics

The word ethics comes from the Greek and has two meanings. The first term comes from the word ethos, meaning custom or habit. Later, this originated from the word ēthos, which means way of life or character. Aristotle believed that the two words are inseparable. Ethics lies in the moral conscience of every human being and serves as an engine, brake, or steering wheel, as appropriate, for the time of action.

Understanding the Scope of Ethics

Ethics is a concept that encompasses a variety of meanings. The word ethos has a much broader sense than that given to the word ethics. Ethics includes the disposition of man in life, character, custom, and morals. We could translate it as "the mode or... Continue reading "Ethics and Morality: Understanding the Principles" »

Nietzsche's Philosophy: Death of God and the Superman

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The Death of God: A Critique of Western Metaphysics and Culture

The concept of the "death of God" in Nietzsche's philosophy represents a profound critique of traditional Western values, particularly those rooted in Christianity. Nietzsche viewed Christianity as a form of "vulgar Platonism," characterized by a fundamental division between two realms:

  • The external, "real" world: This is the transcendent, otherworldly realm, often associated with the afterlife or the Platonic world of perfect, eternal Forms.
  • The internal, "illusory" world: This is the earthly, imperfect realm of sensory experience.

Nietzsche argued that this Platonic-Christian worldview has had a pervasive influence on Western thought, tracing a clear line of continuity from Plato'... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: Death of God and the Superman" »

Kant's Ethics: Foundations of Moral Action

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This document delves into one of the initial chapters of Immanuel Kant's seminal work, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. Here, Kant analyzes ethics as it manifests in sound natural understanding, without needing formal instruction.

The Concept of Good Will

Kant states that an absolutely good will is one with which we act. According to Kant, a good will is achieved independently of whether its purposes are realized, provided the effort is made to attain it.

Duty and Moral Action

To clarify the concept of good will, Kant introduces the concept of duty, distinguishing between different types of actions:

  • Actions conforming to duty: Performed in accordance with duty, but potentially for ulterior motives.
  • Actions done from duty: Performed purely
... Continue reading "Kant's Ethics: Foundations of Moral Action" »

Human Evolution, Culture, and Behavior

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Human Origins and Development

Creationism vs. Evolution

Creationism posits the separate and final creation of all living species. In contrast, Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859) introduced the concept of evolution, where species undergo continuous transformations through natural selection. Mendel's work on biological inheritance further refined our understanding of how traits are passed down. Modern evolutionary theory combines natural selection with mutations.

Theories of Human Origin

There are several theories regarding the origin of our species. The multiregional theory (Wolpoff) suggests that Homo sapiens arose from different prehistoric populations worldwide through continuous gene flow. The "Out of Africa" theory (Stringer)... Continue reading "Human Evolution, Culture, and Behavior" »

Descartes's Rationalism: Foundations of Modern Knowledge

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Descartes's Quest for Knowledge and Method

Our understanding of reality stems from various sources. While empiricism posits that knowledge originates from our senses, rationalism asserts that true and valid knowledge about reality is derived from reason. This rationalist perspective, particularly as championed by René Descartes, is deeply connected with the foundational ideas of modern science, emphasizing deduction. For Descartes, our knowledge of reality can be established deductively from certain self-evident ideas and principles, which he considered innate.

Background to Descartes's Philosophy

  • 1. Motivations for a New Method

    • Negative Motivation: Descartes was critical of his contemporary educational environment, which he found to be based
... Continue reading "Descartes's Rationalism: Foundations of Modern Knowledge" »

The Essence of History and Its Impact on Societies

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What is History?

History is a social science that studies human life in society, considering the space and time in which they live. It uses a specific method and selects documents to develop historical knowledge. Historians define their object of study and then select and define the documents they will use. These documents can include oral testimonies, material remains, written documents, etc. Space and time are key to the historian, as human societies occupy a space and exist within a given time that influences them.

  • It is a social science.
  • Based on documents from the past: evidence, letters, testimonies, images, and fossil remains.
  • Space and time are key.
  • Hypothesis, observation, experiment, conclusion, or theory.

Reflection on the Meaning of Studying

... Continue reading "The Essence of History and Its Impact on Societies" »