Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Philosophy and ethics

1. Descartes' Methodical Doubt

Overcoming Doubt

Descartes' methodical doubt, unlike radical skepticism, is provisional. The goal is to find a truth that is undeniable.

The Purpose

Descartes' method begins with a diagnosis applied to the era. Humanity is like a sick man who must free himself from his sickness. Descartes decides that the path to truth must undergo a destructive critique of everything we know with certainty.

The Method

Descartes' method is like having faith in critique. It is a seemingly impossible task. He asks skeptical questions, directly attacking the foundations of our knowledge. He applies skepticism to doubt our senses and reason.

1.1 First Argument: Senses and Reason

We cannot trust our senses because they often deceive us (e.... Continue reading "Methodical Doubt in Descartes' Philosophy" »

Ethics: Definition and Etymology

Ethics originates from the Greek ethos, referring to character and various aspects of decision-making and responsibility. It is a branch of philosophy that determines the concept of good and evil within specific cultural contexts to improve practical existence. Ethics analyzes the moral life of humans, teaching how to live well and focusing on preferences. It justifies our actions, choices, and behavior, underlying our morality. In essence, ethics and moral philosophy examine human life situations, justify human choices, forge character, and provide living standards.

Morality: Definition and Etymology

The word moral has its roots in the Latin word mos, meaning 'custom' or 'usual'. The moral universe is defined... Continue reading "Ethics and Morality: Principles and Philosophical Traditions" »

Nietzsche's Stages

Context: Three Phases

Youth/Romantic Period

During his youth, Nietzsche studied Greek culture and was influenced by Wagner's music and Schopenhauer's pessimism. This period deals with pre-Socratics like Heraclitus, emphasizing tragic thinkers, intellectual solitude, and a lucid approach. He critically examined Socrates, viewing moral reasoning as resentment and hatred towards life.

Transitional Period

In this non-positivist phase, Nietzsche draws upon experimental sciences to challenge the romantic values he previously held. This transforms him into a free spirit, opposing his former mentors.

Maturity Period

Nietzsche expounds on key themes like eternal recurrence, the death of God, and the superman. He strongly criticizes the... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: A Critique of Western Culture" »

Theory of Knowledge

The Sophists claimed that words were meaningless. However, Socrates and Plato argued against this. In Plato's dialogues, the spoken word was considered a convention, suggesting that things are named arbitrarily. This raised the question of how language originated.

Another theory explored the essence of things, proposing that names should reflect the inherent nature of objects. However, this theory faced challenges due to the existence of different languages.

The third theory, selection intelligible, posits that there are degrees of knowledge. Plato illustrated this with the "allegory of the segmented line," dividing knowledge into two realms: Doxa and Episteme.

Doxa encompasses assumptions and expert opinions about physical... Continue reading "Plato's Theory of Knowledge: Ideas, Soul, and Reminiscence" »

Key Concepts in Justice

• Synthesis: Summary
• Human Rights: Rights inherent to all human beings
• Rule of Law: All people and institutions are subject to and accountable to law
• Procedural Guarantees: Protections entitling a person to a fair trial and punishment
• Abolition: Elimination
• Impartiality: Not sacrificing justice for personal interests
• Means of Coercion: Means used to ensure justice is not sacrificed for personal interests
• Federation of Free States: A type of political organization in which each state cedes part of its sovereignty to a federal government
• Cosmopolitan Right: A set of rules allowing for socially and ecologically responsible economic development by the state

Political and Ethical Theories

• Liberalism

  This theory promotes civil liberties

Affirming Life

Nietzsche seeks to affirm life, accepting it as it is: a spontaneous instinct that manifests as a struggle of forces where some are created and others are destroyed, where nothing is permanent. Life is a creative force, asserting the will to power, which is the desire to live (vital force). In his critique of philosophy, Nietzsche states that decadence starts with Socrates and is reflected in the traditional concepts of Western culture, which is a reflection of Platonic Dualism.

Nihilism

Nihilism is a consequence of the decadence of Western culture, which has fundamentally denied life and affirmed nothing. There are two types of nihilism:

• Passive Nihilism: This is the discovery that all cultural values are false and everything Western

Introduction to British Empiricism

Empiricism is a significant philosophical tradition in English thought. While it critiques rationalism, both share common ground as heirs of Cartesian philosophy, focusing on 'ideas' as fundamental to understanding.

Metaphysics Critiqued

Hume critiques metaphysical ideas, particularly the concept of substance in its extensive, thoughtful, and infinite aspects.

Critique of the Idea of God

Hume argues against causal inferences for God's existence, asserting that such arguments illegitimately move from impressions to non-impressions. He posits that valid ideas must originate from impressions; otherwise, they should be rejected.

Impact of Causality Criticism

The empiricist criterion, limiting certain ideas to impressions,... Continue reading "British Empiricism: Hume's Critique of Metaphysics, Self, and God" »

Descartes on Clarity and Distinction

For René Descartes, clarity and distinction are key features of evidence, signifying knowledge present to the mind. He considered knowledge genuine only if it met both characteristics:

• It is clear: Present and accessible to the attentive mind.
• It is distinct: Precise and separated from all other objects, containing only what is clear within itself.

Knowledge must possess both clarity and distinction to serve as a reliable foundation.

Descartes' Criterion of Truth

The criterion Descartes established to determine the truth of our beliefs is evidence: true propositions are those that present themselves to the intellect as clear and distinct. An approach involves the requirement or standard used for evaluating something;... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Descartes' Philosophy: Mind, Truth, and Reality" »

From Cosmology to Science

Early questions about the order of the universe led to the development of cosmogonies. When the existence of principles or laws explaining the regularity of events was sought, the first science of the universe, or cosmology, emerged. Cosmology is the part of philosophy that studies the physical world, providing a general picture through critical reflection. One of the initial key questions concerned the relationship between reason, senses, and observation techniques. With the rise of the scientific method, cosmology was gradually replaced by empirical science.

Defining Science

Science is a human activity that generates a systematic and organized body of knowledge using laws and general principles. However, not all disciplines... Continue reading "Understanding Science: Methods, Classification, and Limits" »

Epistemology in Kant's *Critique of Pure Reason*

In the *Critique of Pure Reason* (CPR), Kant answers the first question raised: What can I know? The question of what we know leads to a more specific question: whether or not a metaphysical science is possible, if one can gain scientific knowledge regarding the world, God, or the soul. In his view, there are two conditions that any intended scientific discourse should satisfy: universality in judgment and the provision of information. This being so, he proposes to operate a sea-change in the epistemological field because, if so far we have assumed that "all our knowledge must be guided by the objects," there is no way of knowing something in them *a priori*. He then expresses the need for objects