Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

René Descartes (1596-1650)

Baroque Philosopher

Inventor of the Cartesian project, which examines the structure and functioning of reason through four steps:

• Intuition: Clear and evident self-knowledge.
• Deduction: Argumentative chain leading to a conclusion.
• Analysis: Breaking a whole into parts.
• Summary: Recomposition of the essential.

Descartes employs methodic doubt with three parts:

• The fallacy of the senses: Sensory world is uncertain.
• Inability to distinguish waking from sleep: No definitive proof of wakefulness.
• Evil spirit: Doubt even in mathematics.

Descartes' first truth: "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am), proving the Cogitans (mental side). Criterion of validity: Truths must be clear and distinct.

Ideas are divided into:

• Adventitious:

Epicurus on Achieving Happiness

According to Epicurus, happiness can be achieved through two complementary approaches: a negative path focused on eliminating suffering, and a positive path centered on cultivating pleasures.

The Negative Path: Eliminating Pain and Fear

This approach involves avoiding physical pain and ridding oneself of unfounded fears. Epicurus identified common fears and argued why they are irrational:

• Fear of the Gods: There is no need to fear the gods. Either they do not exist, or if they do, their transcendent nature means they are not concerned with human affairs and do not intervene in our lives.
• Fear of Death: Death should not be feared. When we are alive, death is not present; when death arrives, we no longer exist to experience

Ockham's Razor: The Principle of Simplicity

Ockham's Razor is a principle that states that entities should not be multiplied without necessity. Based on this principle, one must always seek the simplest explanation, using only the necessary elements. With his "razor," Ockham sought to demonstrate that most philosophical questions are either false or can be explained without resorting to the language and concepts of metaphysics. To explain unique realities, the individual finds concepts such as essence and existence, substance and accident, efficient cause and final cause, and understanding and patient agent entirely unnecessary. The razor removes these terms, which are empty of meaning, from the Ockhamist language, as they only create false... Continue reading "Ockham's Razor: Simplicity in Philosophy and Science" »

Understanding Knowledge: Epistemology & Metaphysics

Epistemology: The Theory of Knowledge

Epistemology addresses the fundamental problem of knowledge. The issues explored in this field include:

Fundamental Questions of Knowledge

• Is Knowledge Possible? Its Origins?

  Is knowledge possible? If so, what is its origin? Key perspectives on its origin include rationalism and empiricism.

• The Nature of Truth: Relativism & Beyond

  Is there truth? Philosophical currents claim that truth is a social construction; this conception is called relativism. What is truth? Philosophers propose alternative definitions of truth, such as coherence, usefulness, or being the product of a consensus.

• Perception and the Nature of Reality

  Is there a reality, and how do we

Absolutist Theory: Thomas Hobbes

Hobbes understood the State as a result of a covenant or 'social contract,' to which each individual waived certain desires in exchange for others respecting their rights. Individuals gave up some of their freedom in this state to avoid conflict arising from the pursuit of individual interests. According to Hobbes, human beings are inherently selfish, and the state is the only body that can guarantee peace.

Liberal Theory: John Locke

For Locke, the state of nature is where human beings enjoy certain natural rights (life, liberty, property). However, these natural rights were often violated, making property unsafe and its enjoyment uncertain. To ensure a dignified and peaceful life, individuals transfer their rights... Continue reading "Political Philosophy: State Theories and Democratic Principles" »

The Evolutionary Process

Evolution, broadly defined, is a process of development and change. It offers a unified account of reality: from simple to complex, from inorganic matter to organic life. Life begins in basic forms, becoming increasingly complex and diverse, differentiating into various species, and ultimately leading to human life as we know it.

Understanding Human Origins

Several approaches explain the origin and evolution of the human species:

• Religious Explanations: Mythical tales, such as the story of Adam and Eve in Genesis, or Hesiod's Theogony.
• Scientific Approach: The empirical method of observation and demonstration. Anthropology studies human development from its origins. Many ideas about our past remain hypotheses, subject

Nature and Culture

The actions we, as human beings, take are part of two aspects of nature: one that is inherent and another that is cultural. Cultural components are the result of learning.

Nature

Nature is innate; it is what we are born with because it is genetically preprogrammed or develops in the embryo.

Culture

Culture is acquired through social learning from the moment we are born.

Evolution

Evolution is the process whereby individuals of the same species undergo qualitative changes, leading the species to slowly change from more primitive life forms into more organized ones. The result has been the multiplicity of species.

Theory of Evolution

Natural selection is not a conscious process, but rather nature acts blindly. Variations arise randomly.... Continue reading "Nature, Culture, and Human Evolution: A Deep Dive" »

Understanding Work-Related Injuries

A Work Injury is any physical injury that workers suffer in connection with, or resulting from, work performed for third parties. Therefore, there are three elements of a work-related accident:

1. Paid employment
2. Injury
3. Causal link between work and injury

The injury has traditionally been interpreted comprehensively as any physical or physiological impairment that affects functional development. This encompasses not only injuries caused by an external agent but also those due to internal causes.

This includes injuries resulting from certain diseases. Common diseases caused by work are known as occupational diseases, and pre-existing defects or diseases can be aggravated by an accident.

The requirement of a causal link... Continue reading "Understanding Work-Related Injuries: A Detailed Analysis" »

Freedom and Responsibility

In ancient times, freedom was understood as the ability of humans to act despite the constraints that nature imposed. Humans are free but may require responsibility for their actions. Then, freedom was a divine law. In modern times, freedom is a consequence of accountability. Individual freedom is the foundation of modern political and economic forms, and self-choice human beings have by right.

Ethics and Morality

Morality is related to action, while ethics is the reflection on morality. They have a relationship but are distinct. Morality deals with the set of rules and customs that are accepted as appropriate in one place. Ethics is a critical view of morality, rules, and consequences resulting from human action. It... Continue reading "Freedom, Ethics, and Morality: A Deep Dive" »

René Descartes: A Philosophical Pioneer

Early Life and Education

René Descartes was born on March 31, 1596, in La Haye, Touraine, France. He grew up in a family of minor nobility, the third son of Joachim Descartes and Jeanne Brochard, a lawyer, who died when he was a year old.

He trained at the Jesuit college of La Flèche between 1606 and 1614, where he studied the science and philosophy of his era. He then began his law studies at the University of Poitiers. In 1618, he began serving as a volunteer in the army of Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange, and in 1619, for the Duke of Bavaria. However, he soon left his military career to pursue philosophy, his true vocation.

Later Life and Demise

In 1628, Descartes traveled to Holland, where he lived... Continue reading "René Descartes: Life, Philosophy, and Enduring Legacy" »