Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Philosophy and ethics

Ancient Wisdom

1^st Premise: All men tend by nature to know. 2^nd Premise: Knowledge through the senses gives wisdom. Thesis Conclusion: Human wisdom is to know the first causes and principles of things. (Fifteenth century BC) Aristotle tells us the ultimate goal of wisdom: knowledge of first principles.

Introduction to Early Greek Thought

The birthplace of Greek philosophy was the coast of Asia Minor, and the first philosophers were Ionians. Philosophy is both an individual activity and a product of society, reflected in the conception of law as the order of the cosmos. Philosophy arises from a shift in thinking: the abandonment of mythical thought and the emergence of rational thought. Mythical elements are found not only in the first philosophers... Continue reading "Origins of Western Philosophy: From Myth to Reason" »

Hume's Radical Empiricism

David Hume, a radical empiricist, argued that all ideas must be preceded by an impression. If there is no corresponding impression, the idea is not valid. This includes the concept of causality (cause and effect). Immanuel Kant, on the other hand, stated that while everything begins with experience, not everything arises from it.

Hume believed that our perceptions had no causality at all, but were merely linked by habit. The awareness of the principle of causality comes *after* the experience of apparent causal relationships. For Kant, however, the principle of causality is fundamental and necessary for the perception of sequences of events, that is, to limit knowledge to the *a priori*. Impressions are the experience;... Continue reading "Hume vs. Kant: Understanding Causality and Knowledge" »

Hume on Causality and Kant's Response

David Hume argued that cause and effect cannot be discovered by reason, but only by experience. Any argument dependent on experience is based on the similarity discovered between objects in the past, leading us to expect similar effects in similar cases. Custom, therefore, leads us to believe events will repeat as they have previously. Confidence in the future is not based on reason, nor is it absolute security; it is merely a belief.

Immanuel Kant, responding partly to Hume, sought a solid foundation for Mathematical Physics. Judgments, Kant argued, should be synthetic (expanding our knowledge), yet also universal and necessary, valid in all circumstances and times. Science cannot rely solely on analytical... Continue reading "Kant's Synthesis of Empiricism and Rationalism" »

ConoSentidos (Sensory Knowledge)

Sensory knowledge, like in the living area, incorporates living without the defined form. It sensitively captures perceived objects without material capture. Perception is accurate and characterizes existing qualities in the sensuous faculty in the world. The soul is the ability to receive forms, so instantly perception of the unit is a sensitive faculty that has taken shape.

ConoLogica (Logical Knowledge): The Syllogism

A study on investigations said that there was nothing prior to logic that deserves mention, so its creator is considered the founder of that branch of knowledge. If logic is not introduced in science, it is because it is considered an instrument for scientific knowledge, prior to science itself.... Continue reading "Aristotle's Philosophy: Knowledge, Logic, Ethics, and Happiness" »

Kant's Life in Historical Context

Kant lived in Prussia during the reign of Frederick the Great, the "philosopher king," whose form of government was enlightened despotism - "everything for the people, without the people" - with its promotion of social reforms. Internationally, momentous historical events occurred, such as the independence of the United States and its Constitution's proclamation, and the French Revolution (1789) - and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, which are the basis of the modern liberal sociocultural democratic framework. Socially, a crisis occurred between the aristocratic and hierarchical class society of the Old Regime and the triumphant bourgeoisie of the French Revolution. These were the main actors... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant: Life, Philosophy, and Historical Impact" »

Material and Formal Ethics

In the realm of media, material ethics considers actions as good or bad depending on the aim pursued. Immanuel Kant rejects this view because:

• Its imperatives are not universal.
• They are hypothetical, holding value only if we accept the good they seek as inherently good.
• They are heteronomous, meaning that humans determine what is good or bad.

In contrast, formal ethics views behaviors as inherently good or bad in themselves.

• It does not establish any ultimate good that humans should pursue.
• It merely dictates how we should act to behave morally, not the specific acts themselves.

Thus, moral principles are universal, necessary, and immutable.

Natural Law vs. Positivism

Natural Law is a legal tradition within the philosophy... Continue reading "Material vs. Formal Ethics, Social Origins, and Political Philosophy" »

Plato's Metaphysics: The Theory of Two Worlds

Plato's metaphysics presents a dualistic conception of reality. He proposes the existence of two distinct worlds:

• The sensible world (physical): This is the world we perceive through our senses. It is a world of constant change and imperfection.
• The metaphysical world (World of Ideas or Forms): This world is composed of perfect, immaterial, immutable, and incorruptible entities called "Ideas" or "Forms." These Ideas are not merely concepts but have their own independent existence.

The World of Ideas is intelligible, meaning we can access it through pure reason, not through the senses. It contains:

• Mathematical concepts (numbers, etc.)
• General concepts relating to the physical world (animal, sun, clouds,

Animal and Human Intelligence: A Comparison

Is there a fundamental difference between animal and human intelligence? While animals demonstrate intelligence through tool use and problem-solving in their immediate environment, human intelligence exhibits a qualitative leap. Humans utilize abstract thought, signs, symbols, and conceptual design, allowing for the application of knowledge across diverse situations. Animals primarily operate on a stimulus-response model, whereas humans can generalize solutions. For example, a chimpanzee might learn to use a stick to obtain food, but a human can apply the concept of leverage in countless scenarios.

The Cultural Animal

Humans are uniquely defined by their dual nature: biological beings shaped by cultural... Continue reading "Human vs Animal Intelligence & Society Evolution" »

Rationalism vs. Empiricism

To the rationalist, metaphysics was the body of knowledge to which man can reach by his own lights, sound as a carrier of these ideas since birth. These innate ideas are embedded in humans and can be discovered without the help of experience, just by thinking. For rationalists, the metaphysical has to develop and organize the rest of knowledge, based on innate and obvious truths.

For the empiricist, all knowledge comes from outside, from what our senses pick up. So for them, there are no innate ideas, but a mind, initially 'virgin', in which experience is typed. They denied any possibility of metaphysics, and dogmatism and moral consequences are derived from all of this. In denying the metaphysical, everything is reduced... Continue reading "Kant's Critical Philosophy: Bridging Rationalism and Empiricism" »

Descartes' Philosophical Context and Major Works

Animals are capable of carnal love, and we were like trees, sensitive beings. If objects could not love, anything that has movement and feeling could. But as we are men, created in the image of our Creator, who is the eternal truth, eternal and true love, we are able to return there in the triple form of human nature, as the image of God. "I am, I know, I want to be."

René Descartes was born in 1596. He studied at the Jesuit college of La Flèche. After graduation, he decided to learn from the "great book of the world." In 1619, he embarked on a search for truth through the use of reason. His most important works are:

• Rules for the Direction of the Spirit: An unfinished work containing twenty-one