Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The Evolution of the Spanish Essay: From the 19th Century to Democracy

The delicate political and economic situation that dominated the 19th century led into the 20th with a constant concern for the state of Spain. The proposed regeneration went hand in hand with the country, and in their writings, authors discussed the most pressing problems of the moment and postulated practical solutions. However, it was not only the Regenerationists who were concerned about the crisis of the century. In the essays of the Generation of '98, we also see spiritual concerns and anxiety about the meaning of life, fear of death, or the desire for immortality (Unamuno), political commentary from patriotic intellectuals and anarchists, charged with autobiographical... Continue reading "Spanish Essayists: 19th Century to Democracy" »

Hume: Treatise on Human Nature and Human Understanding

*Treatise on Human Nature* as the "Newton of Moral Science"

Treatise on Human Nature is considered as the "Newton of Moral Science." It intends to apply the Newtonian method to moral issues, i.e., the science of man. It aims to unify all the sciences to examine and understand the extent of the forces of human agency and explain the nature of ideas and arguments. From the empirical standpoint, the most important work is the laws of association of ideas.

*An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding*

In *An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding*, Hume abandons the idea of creating a science of man and leaves the Newtonian method. He focuses on an analysis of human understanding and has a strong... Continue reading "Hume's Philosophy: Understanding Human Knowledge" »

Marx's Historical Materialism: Origins & Influences

The idea of historical materialism, developed by Marx, was conceived early in his readings of Feuerbach and Hegel. Feuerbach was seen as a crucial founder of the materialist conception, influencing the path Marx identified. Hegel, on the other hand, interested Marx with his historical conception of human essence, according to which the human being becomes itself through labor. Marx found these statements rather complicated and needed to adapt them. Hegelian dialectics was not something abstract, but Feuerbach's materialism, while important, could not explain the human being at work and within a given society without a historical dimension.

The work done in *The German Ideology* by Marx and... Continue reading "Marx's Historical Materialism: Origins and Core Concepts" »

Arguments in Favor

This issue sparks debate. Notably, there's a compelling argument for it. Another point supporting this stance is... Furthermore, one aspect of this issue is... The main advantage is... Another point in favor is...

Arguments Against

On the other hand, there are counterarguments. The primary drawback is... Another point against it is... I am convinced that... It's important to remember that... It's crucial. It's vital. With this in mind, I believe that...

Personal Perspective

In my point of view, I would say that... I strongly believe that...

Conclusion

In conclusion, considering all perspectives, it's essential to weigh the pros and cons carefully.

The First Truth: Cogito

From that universal doubt appears the first truth and certainty. The first base of Cartesian philosophy is: "I think, therefore I am." The cogito is not an argument, but an intuition.

Try to explain rationally the universe, i.e., to explain in terms of man, according to me. It was therefore necessary to start by defining the man, the self, and defining it so that in him were enough elements to build a world system.

The cogito is an act of the subject because I'm the one who thinks.

The ideas represent an inevitable mediation between the thinker and things.

Three Types of Ideas

• Innate: The understanding that has by nature: thought, God.
• Adventitious: Those who come from outside expertise.
• Artificial: Those coming from our imagination.

Understanding Conflict

• A clash of positions arising among individuals or groups because one party's behavior hinders the attainment of another's objectives.
• Generated between two parties: individuals or groups.
• It is a struggle for position; each party seeks to advance its own stance.

Collective Conflict

• Occurs between a company's workforce (as a whole) and the company itself.
• Typically concerns general discrepancies, such as working conditions or general employee interests.
• The resolution affects all involved parties collectively.
• Resolved by representatives of the parties through negotiation, arbitration, or court proceedings.
• Legal pressure methods are commonly used.

Individual Conflict

• Occurs between an employer/manager and an individual employee.

Plato's Theory of Ideas

Plato's theory of ideas affirms the absolute and independent existence of immaterial entities that are unchanging and universal. These ideas constitute a perfect, eternal, and hierarchical world. At its peak is the idea of the Good, which is both the cause and purpose of all other ideas. Knowledge of this order is available to few – the philosophers – hence Plato's proposal that they should govern.

Plato describes a sensible world modeled by a demiurge who seeks to imitate the world of ideas, though matter prevents it from achieving perfection.

Theory of Knowledge: Reminiscence

Plato's doctrine of knowledge, called reminiscence, posits that humans consist of body and soul. The soul is immortal and belongs to the world... Continue reading "Understanding Plato's Theory of Ideas, Knowledge, and Ethics" »

Nietzsche's Core Philosophical Concepts

Nietzsche's Engagement with Kant and Hegel

Nietzsche's philosophy emerged from a complex intellectual landscape, engaging deeply with the ideas of his predecessors. While not a direct follower, his thought critically responded to the legacies of figures like Kant and Hegel.

• Hegel's Dialectic and Reality: Hegel famously posited that "Everything real is rational, and everything rational is real." This concept suggests that all historical and social developments occur because they are inherently logical and necessary.
• Hegelian Streams: From Hegel's philosophy, three main intellectual currents emerged:
  1. Conservative Hegelianism: This branch, often associated with the "end of history" thesis, saw the capitalist

Plato and Nietzsche: Contrasting Philosophical Perspectives

Nietzsche's thought (19th century) is characterized as an irrational vitalism. Therefore, it is interesting to compare it with a thinker who conceived reality in a completely different way: Plato's rational idealism. Common to both authors is the defense of an aristocratic sense of existence, although from very different perspectives.

Plato uses the Myth of the Cave to make clear that what is commonly accepted as true are nothing but shadows, and very few truly have access to the knowledge of true reality. Nietzsche, in turn, criticized the commonly considered lofty values of Western culture. He argued that their origin in Platonic thought was based on dogmatic, decadent, and flawed... Continue reading "Philosophical Foundations: Plato, Nietzsche, and Aquinas" »

Nietzsche's View on Politics as Illusion

For Friedrich Nietzsche, conventional politics belongs to the realm of pure illusion. He argued that politics, as historically practiced, was merely a battleground where competing interests clashed, offering prospective promises of future achievements—promises he viewed as ultimately hollow.

The Potential for Genuine Community

Nietzsche saw potential value in political action only when focused on rebuilding the people (das Volk) and fostering the ideal of a genuine community. He believed only such a community could rescue humanity from the dire state caused by the democratic egalitarianism promoted by modernity through its action. For Nietzsche, there could be no authentic politics separate from the people,... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Critique of Politics, the State, and Democracy" »