Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Aquinas on the Existence of God

The Summa Theologica is a highly influential work in theology and Christian doctrine. It is divided into three parts: the first part, "On God"; the second, covering ethical and moral issues; and the third, dedicated to the study of Christ.

The Problem of God's Existence

The question of God's existence is framed within the structure of reality. God is real, as are creatures, but God's being and existence are not derived from anything or anyone. Creatures, however, derive their being and existence from God. Created beings are contingent; they exist, but their existence is not necessary. God, on the other hand, necessarily exists.

This distinction highlights the difference between essence and existence. Created things... Continue reading "Aquinas' Proofs: The Existence of God Through Five Ways" »

New Christianity Characteristics

New Christianity encompasses several key characteristics:

• Monotheism: Belief in one God.
• Creationism: The belief that God created everything from nothing.
• Timeline: Placing events within a historical context.
• Truth: Holding onto fundamental truths.
• Man: Created in God's image.

The Ethics of Epicurus

Epicurean ethics focuses on material well-being, defining good and evil based on their ability to achieve happiness. Pleasure is central to human nature, experienced as the absence of pain in both body and soul. Epicurus identifies three types of pleasure:

• Natural and necessary (e.g., food, rest)
• Natural but not necessary (seeking greater satisfaction)
• Neither natural nor necessary (e.g., wealth, honor)

To avoid pain and suffering,... Continue reading "New Christianity Characteristics: Monotheism, Ethics, and Knowledge" »

St. Augustine's Philosophy

Epistemology (Theory of Knowledge)

Humans possess an innate inclination towards wisdom and true happiness. The certainty of one's existence is a knowledge the soul experiences directly. Beyond skeptical doubt, different levels of knowledge emerge:

• Sensitive Knowledge: Uncertain and susceptible to change and error.
• Rational Knowledge: Based on intangible, universal, and eternal models.
• Contemplation of Ideas: Wisdom is attainable only through divine illumination; the power of knowledge is not independent of divinity.

The Existence and Nature of God

Several arguments support God's existence:

• God's Effects: The order, beauty, and movement of the world reveal God.
• Universal Consent: A belief in a being superior to all things

Sanitation Eviction (1461, 1474)

The seller is liable for eviction (deprivation of the property based on a prior right). This occurs when the buyer is deprived of ownership because a third party demonstrates a superior, pre-existing right to the property.

Requirements:

• The buyer must experience demonstrable harm and final, irreversible deprivation.
• The deprivation must be based on a right established before the purchase.
• The eviction must be irreversible, judicially enforced, and total or partial (1475-1480).
• The seller must be notified of the eviction lawsuit within the legal timeframe. Eviction liability is presumed (1478).

Effects:

• Refund of the price at the time of eviction.
• Payment of proceeds or revenue, if awarded in court.
• Reimbursement for

Relations of Ideas and Matters of Fact: Our mental contents are reduced to impressions and ideas, which form the basis of our thought experiments.

1. Relations of ideas: These establish relationships between ideas and concepts. Their truth depends not on experience, but on the meaning of the terms. Relations of ideas are universal and necessary statements; their negation is contradictory and absurd.
2. Matters of fact: These establish relationships among facts that must be verified through observation and experience. These claims are contingent; their negation is possible. Matters of fact often refer to the future. Relations of ideas and matters of fact are the only two types of propositions that can provide knowledge.

Critique of Metaphysics: Hume... Continue reading "Hume's Empiricism: Relations of Ideas, Matters of Fact, and Critique of Metaphysics" »

Comparing Philosophers on Society's Origins

Plato, Aristotle, and Locke had different views on how society originates. They considered whether society is derived from nature or from a different source. Aristotle believed that humans are naturally inclined to form families, which then join together to form clans, and eventually, societies. This bonding process is driven by a natural necessity, with no clear transition between the natural state of man and the constitution of a society.

Plato, however, argued that the State should meet a default model based on pre-existing ideas of justice and right, not nature. Locke initially saw the natural state as one where individuals are driven by their desires, leading to conflicts and a state of war. However,... Continue reading "Comparing Plato, Aristotle, and Locke on Society's Origins" »

Rene Descartes (1595-1650)

Born in La Haye en Touraine, France.

A philosopher and mathematician, Descartes' great work is Discourse on Method, published in 1637.

In Discourse on Method, he introduces methodical doubt, subjecting all knowledge to rigorous scrutiny.

His famous formulation: "I think, therefore I am."

Descartes aspired to establish firm and lasting foundations in the sciences.

Rules of Method

• The principle of evidence (or methodical doubt).
• The precept of analysis.
• The precept of synthesis.
• The process of verification.

Theory of Two Substances

A substance exists independently, requiring nothing else for its existence.

Part of the cogito (thought): Descartes argues that he is solely a thinking substance, as even the most radical skeptic cannot... Continue reading "Rene Descartes, James Mill, John Stuart Mill, Immanuel Kant, and Wilhelm Wundt: Key Philosophers and Their Theories" »

Key Principles of Scientific Work

Several key principles characterize the work of a scientist:

• Asking Questions: It is essential to choose crucial questions that will not lead to a dead end. We must ask questions that have a modest but useful response.
• Formulation of the Hypothesis: This involves forming an idea or hypothesis about natural phenomena. The formulation of hypotheses is a key moment in scientific knowledge and is the most creative.
• Testing of the Hypothesis: We need to show that the idea or hypothesis has scientific validity. Experiments can be conducted to test our hypothesis.
• Formulation of Hypotheses or Theories: General laws of nature are typically formulated as major theories that must be consistent and demonstrable.

Considerations

The Pre-Socratic Philosophers

The Milesians (Monists: One Arché)

• Thales: Considered the first Milesian thinker, he proposed that the Arché (the fundamental principle) is water. He reasoned this based on observations: solid land seemingly floats on water, water reflects the heavens, and water in its gaseous state forms clouds.
• Anaximander: Believed the Arché to be the Apeiron (the boundless or infinite), a substance in perpetual motion, from which opposing forces (hot-dry, like stars; cold-wet, like Earth) arise. He also proposed that living beings evolved from fish.
• Anaximenes: Identified air as the Arché, a limitless substance that transforms through condensation and rarefaction.

Pythagoreans

The Pythagoreans believed that number is the Arché.... Continue reading "Pre-Socratic Philosophers: From Thales to Socrates" »