Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Philosophical Knowledge

Rationalist Methods

Rationalists employ methods that empirical rationalists defend. Empiricists rely on experience and deductive methods. Rationalists argue that experience is unreliable. Some embrace the idea of innate rationalist imagination, independent of sensory sources. Descartes proposed two key ideas:

1. "I think, therefore I am."
2. The concept of infinity originates without sensory input.

Empiricists oppose rationalism.

Inductive and Deductive Procedures

These procedures are fundamental to experimental science and mathematics.

Transcendental Methods

Kant critiqued both rationalist and empiricist approaches in the 18th century. He argued that knowledge arises from both experience and reason. He questioned the foundations of... Continue reading "Understanding Philosophical Knowledge: Rationalism, Empiricism, and Language" »

Texts

According to Hobbes

Theme

The need for the state to establish order among humans.

Auxiliary Idea

End state.

Terms

• State: Characterized by the instrument that holds political power, it can be defined as an association of a complex type. Within a given territory, it successfully monopolizes legitimate violence as an instrument of domination.
• War: The result of the natural passions of men when there is no visible power to keep them in fear, and the threat of punishment to force them to comply with covenants and observe the laws of nature.

Do I need the state? Why? The state guarantees peace, order, and security.

According to Marx

Topic

Comparison of a capitalist state with a state of slavery.

Auxiliary Idea

The basis for the rule of seniority was slavery;... Continue reading "Hobbes, Marx, Ortega y Gasset: State, Power, and Society" »

Philosophy: Definition and Origins

Definition of Philosophy: Philosophy is the knowledge of all beings by their root causes, acquired by the natural light of reason.

Reality and Wonder

Reality to the Wonder: A human being's attitude of admiring everything for which there is no explanation.

The Questioning Attitude

Questioning Attitude Features: For investigating the causes of the phenomena we observe and connections between them, in order to find the ultimate foundations of reality.

Origin of Philosophy

Origin of Philosophy: In Miletus, an ancient Greek city in the sixth century BC.

Factors Favoring the Origin of Philosophy

• Participation of citizens in the polis.
• Cultural exchange with other Mediterranean peoples.
• The importance of education in Greek

Plato: Combating Skepticism

Combating the skepticism and relativism of sophists. Theory of Ideas: Duality between the sensible and intelligible world. The soul (Psyche) as a tool to know the ideas of mathematics served. Division of the mind into three parts and the state into three classes. Parallelism between them. Preference for aristocracy as a form of government.

Similarities with Others

• The ideas coincide with the universal concepts of Socrates.
• Aristotle agrees with Plato in the mind of reason and the need to control instincts. Also coincides with aristocracy as the best form of government.
• Descartes agrees with Plato on the existence of reason as a source of knowledge.
• Plato is accused of communism by his approach to the Republic and therefore

Notion of Freedom

What defines freedom is the power to direct and dominate one's actions, the ability to set a goal and head toward it. It is more about self-control than governing others' actions. In the free act, two higher faculties of the soul come into play: intelligence and will. The will chooses what has previously been known by intelligence. To do so, before deliberately choosing, the mind considers various possibilities, with their different advantages and disadvantages. The decision is the result of that mental consideration of possibilities. I decide when I choose one of the possibilities discussed. It is not the possibility that forces me to take it; rather, I am the one who makes it happen.

To be human is to be free. There is physical... Continue reading "Freedom, Responsibility, and the Common Good" »

The distinction between being and seeming is essential for understanding key aspects of Rousseau's philosophy. It allows us to identify some of the most significant differences between the state of nature and civil society.

The State of Nature: Unveiling True Being

In the state of nature, such a distinction is impossible. This is because it occurs in a context where humans interact only with their peers, free from external pressures, societal constructs, or the need for possessions. The natural man lives in an immediate relationship with his environment, making him much closer to mere animality than the adult life of a civilized human being. This is why the natural man ignores the difference between being and seeming, lacking any notion that... Continue reading "Rousseau's Philosophy: Authenticity and Pretense" »

Nietzsche's Philosophy: From *Twilight of the Idols* to the *Superman*

The Late Period: *Twilight of the Idols* and Beyond

The text belongs to *Twilight of the Idols* of 1888. The content is more than half a *magnum opus* in which Nietzsche pretended to systematize all his thought, called *The Will to Power*. The content is divided into two books: *The Twilight of the Idols* and *The Antichrist*, along with *The Case of Wagner* and *Ecce Homo*. Nietzsche therein does not develop any new thinking, but rather increases what is already known. In January 1889 in Turin, he falls ill and dies on August 25, 1900. The works mentioned, in conjunction with *Thus Spoke Zarathustra*, *Beyond Good and Evil*, and *On the Genealogy of Morality*, represent his... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: From Twilight of the Idols to Superman" »

Instinct

Instinct refers to genetically determined guidelines for stationary behavior that occur in all normal animals of a species.

Myths

Myths are stories repeated consistently, explaining the origin and destiny of the human community in which they are effective, often detailing significant events.

Anthropomorphic

Anthropomorphic describes the belief that everything happening in the world is the result of actions by gods who resemble humans but possess significantly greater power.

Analysis

Analysis involves breaking down a complex whole into its constituent, simpler elements.

Summary

A summary involves synthesizing various simpler elements to form a more complex, cohesive whole.

Radical

A radical approach focuses not on how things work, but on whether... Continue reading "Fundamental Concepts in Philosophy and Science" »

Economic Alienation

Economic alienation is the fundamental form of alienation, from which all others derive. The employee suffers from it in various ways:

• Essence: Meaningful work, which distinguishes humans from animals, is not possible in a capitalist society.
• Activity: Work is forced and repetitive, not felt as fulfilling but as something alien.
• Product: The worker has no power over the product of their labor; it becomes something that enslaves them.
• Relationship with the Capitalist: The worker's relationship with the capitalist, who benefits from their work, is fraught with conflict.

Social and Political Alienation

Economic alienation underlies the division of society into classes and the separation between citizens and the state. The state... Continue reading "Alienation and Will: From Marx to Nietzsche" »

The Quest for Moral Conduct

From the beginning of time, humanity has sought to understand how to act and how to guide its conduct. This quest necessitates addressing profound ethical issues that have always been central to philosophy. However, philosophers do not hold a unified position on these problems; sometimes, they even offer opposing answers.

Kant's Formal Ethics: A Historical Novelty

Immanuel Kant's ethics represented a significant novelty in history. His formal ethics stands in stark contrast to the various material ethics that preceded it.

Rejection of Material Ethics

Kant rejected material ethics for several reasons:

• They are empirical, as their substance is derived from experience.
• They are hypothetical, meaning they are precepts valid