Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Utilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham is the founder of utilitarianism, or “the ethics of happiness.” When Bentham was a guest on my Almanac page, he outlined his moral science of hedonism. What is hedonism?

"The community is a fictitious body, composed of the individual persons who are considered as constituting as it were its members. The interests of the community then is, what? -- the sum of the interests of the several members who compose it."

- Jeremy Bentham (1748 -- 1832)

• Society is just the sum of individuals in that society.
• For individuals, right actions are those which lead to happiness and avoid pain.
• When it comes to “goods,” more is preferred to less. “Most is best” – this is the idea of maximization.
• Majority rule is the basis

Ancient Philosophy: Plato and Aristotle

Plato

Plato, known for his Theory of Forms, believed in a dualistic reality. He distinguished between the constantly changing world of appearances (shadows) and the permanent realm of Forms, which are only accessible through reason. As a rationalist, he argued that knowledge is innate and discovered through reason, not sensory experience.

Aristotle

Aristotle, Plato's student, emphasized the importance of empirical observation and logic. He developed the syllogism, a system of deductive reasoning, and believed that knowledge is acquired through observation and logical analysis.

Medieval Philosophy: Aquinas

Thomas Aquinas, a prominent figure in medieval philosophy, sought to reconcile faith and reason. He argued... Continue reading "A Philosophical Journey: From Plato to Kant" »

Spanish Enlightenment: Education as the Cornerstone of Progress

Antecedents

Francis Bacon and Empiricism

The basis of Empiricism is that our knowledge comes from experience. It does not come from the principles and dogmas of authorities. Bacon wrote The New Atlantis, a utopia based on the practice of the new science of the House of Salomon.

René Descartes and Rationalism

Born in France, he passed away in Sweden. "I think, therefore I am." The "mind" or "reason" was the main source of truth. Only facts that are clear to the mind are true (rationalism). As a result, the "rational ethic" appeared.

Isaac Newton

He was English. His Universal Law of Gravitation, published in 1687, changed the conception of the Universe. The world can be explained through... Continue reading "Spanish Enlightenment: Education and Societal Transformation Under Charles III" »

Key Business Decision-Making Terms

• Consultation

  A discussion where different expert opinions are heard before a decision is made.

• Confrontation

  An argument or open conflict.

• Concession

  Something you agree to accept or do in order to reach an agreement or end an argument.

• Compromise

  An agreement where you get part of what you want.

• Consensus

  General agreement between a group of people.

• Hierarchy

  The power and decision-making structure of an organization.

• Brainstorm

  To generate ideas imaginatively and energetically.

• Put Forward

  To present or propose.

• Options

  Choices or alternatives.

• Backing

  Support or approval.

• Majority

  Most of the people.

• In Favor Of

  Supporting, not against.

• Go For

  To choose.

• Carry Out

  To perform or execute.

Match Verbs to Nouns: Business Phrases

Match the... Continue reading "Mastering Business Communication: Essential Terms & Exercises" »

David Hume's Sentimentalism

The Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711-1776) is one of the most representative philosophers of the philosophical current known as empiricism. Empiricism prioritizes the role of observation and sensitive experimentation against reason in both science and general thought.

Hume's Ethical Theory

From the point of view of ethics, Hume undertook a study of morality that changed the prevailing rationalist perspective in previous philosophies. He focused more on emotions, passions, and feelings as the foundation of the moral life; therefore, we speak of "sentimentalism" in Hume.

Morality as Experience

According to Hume's ethical theory, morality is a kind of experience clearly different from logical-mathematical or merely... Continue reading "David Hume's Sentimentalism: Ethics and Emotions" »

Durkheim's View on Religion's Social Role

Religion provided meaning in life, authority figures, and most importantly for Durkheim, it reinforced the morals and social norms held collectively by all within a society. Far from dismissing religion as mere fantasy, despite its natural origin, Durkheim saw it as a critical part of the social system.

Religion serves several vital social functions:

• Social Control: Guiding behavior and maintaining order.
• Cohesion: Uniting individuals through shared beliefs and practices.
• Purpose: Providing individuals with a sense of meaning and direction.
• Communication and Gathering: Offering a means for individuals to interact and reaffirm social norms.

The Sacred and the Profane: Durkheim's Distinction

Durkheim's second... Continue reading "Durkheim's Sociology of Religion: Sacred, Profane, and Social Cohesion" »

Qualities of a Good Negotiator

Knowledge

Understand the other party's needs and perspectives.

Communication

Clearly state your desired outcome from the start. Pay attention to both verbal and non-verbal communication, including voice and body language. Avoid aggressive behavior.

Confidence and Listening

Project self-confidence and practice active listening to understand the other party's point of view.

Types of Negotiation

Win-Win

Both sides benefit, leading to voluntarily accepted resolutions. Integrative bargaining aims for win-win outcomes through cooperation.

Win-Lose

Only one side perceives the outcome as positive, making voluntary acceptance less likely.

Lose-Lose

All parties end up worse off.

Negotiation Advice

• Strive for win-win outcomes.
• Maintain

Reflections on Dr. Mario Sergio's Insights

In a compelling video, Dr. Mario Sergio discussed the crucial relationship between ethics and coexistence in a society. He highlighted that our generation faces a significant ethical deficit. Dr. Sergio emphasized that ethics is the "aesthetics of our inner selves," cultivated through discipline and a clear understanding of right and wrong. This ethical foundation, he argued, must be established during childhood.

The Importance of Early Ethical Education

Dr. Sergio quoted a popular saying: "The world we leave to our children depends heavily on the children we leave to this world." This underscores the need to instill strong values and ethical principles in our youth. He referenced the letters of the Apostle... Continue reading "Ethics and Social Harmony: Cultivating a Better Future" »

A human action can be considered as a moral action whether it has the following characteristics:

1. It is done by adjusting to a code or a set of moral rules and values. These rules and values designate what should be considered as morally good or bad, advisable or inadvisable, etc. In the next section we will study what the moral values and rules are.
2. This moral code should not be imposed by the society to the people, but each individual must be free to choose it. For example, I must be free to choose whether or not euthanasia is something acceptable from a moral point of view. For this reason, morality is above all an individual matter related to the autonomy of each person.
3. Being free when acting is something extremely important when assessing

The Importance of Having Goals in Life

All humans have goals to accomplish in life. Some are achievable, and some are not, but we should always have hope. It doesn't matter if you can perform it or not. These are the goals that fill us with hope and faith. Also, they guide us and show which path to follow. Without those goals, we could not define exactly where we wanted to go. In this text, I will explain what my goals are and why it is good to have goals in life, and we will realize that life would be meaningless without them.

My Primary Goal: Becoming a Nurse

First, I always thought that having goals in life is good, and I have so many, but today I am going to mention the one which is the most important one. It's something I want to be in the... Continue reading "Achieving Aspirations: The Significance of Setting Life Goals" »