Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Symbolism in Literature

Symbolism in literature was a complex movement that extended the evocative power of words to express the feelings, sensations, and states of mind that lie beyond everyday awareness.

Charles Baudelaire and Open-Ended Symbols

Charles Baudelaire created open-ended symbols. He brought the invisible into being through the visible and linked the invisible through other sensory perceptions, notably smell and sound.

A symbol is a keyhole to a different world, giving way to ambitions.

Poets focused on their inner life. They explored strange cults and countries. They wrote in allusive, enigmatic, musical, and ambiguous styles.

W.B. Yeats (1865-1939) and Irish Literature

W.B. Yeats (1865-1939) - Irish literature

• On Baile's Strand (1903)

Aristotelian Teleology vs. Kantian Deontology

Aristotle is considered a teleological philosopher because he states that, with respect to the good, it isn't merely a disposition. Something is good if it performs its proper function.

Kant is considered a deontological philosopher because he stated that to act in a morally right way, people must act from duty, and that a good will is still good even if one fails to achieve its intended outcome.

Defining Virtue: The Golden Mean

Virtue is defined as a mean between two extremes of excess and defect in regard to a feeling or action, as a practically wise person would determine it. This mean is relative to the individual's circumstances.

Understanding Key Social Liberation Movements

Feminism

Feminism began... Continue reading "Foundations of Ethics and Social Justice Movements" »

Ortega y Gasset's Philosophy

Bridging Reason and Life

In "The Theme of Our Time," Ortega y Gasset seeks to reconcile the Western tradition of reason with the concept of life. This work marks the mature stage of his thought, known as ratio-vitalism. The final chapter, "The Doctrine of View," argues that every individual, group, and generation arrives at truth through their unique perspective. The totality of these perspectives constitutes the whole truth, built and revealed throughout history.

Three Stages of Thought

Ortega y Gasset's thought evolves through three stages: objectivist, perspectival, and ratio-vitalist.

1. Objectivism

Initially, he believed in the possibility of attaining objective truth.

2. Perspectivism

This stage, represented by works... Continue reading "Ortega y Gasset's Philosophy of Perspectivism and Ratio-Vitalism" »

Fundamental Problems of Philosophy

This unit delves into some of the fundamental problems that have faced philosophers in modern and contemporary eras. These problems belong to theoretical philosophy and are grouped into two main areas: the theory of knowledge (epistemology) and metaphysics.

The Theory of Knowledge (Epistemology)

Epistemology, or the theory of knowledge, is the philosophical discipline concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge. Key questions addressed include:

• Is Knowledge Possible? What is its Origin?

  This fundamental question explores whether knowledge is attainable and, if so, where it originates. The two primary philosophical solutions are rationalism and empiricism.

• What is Truth?

  The concept of truth is complex. Some

J.S. Mill's Utilitarianism

Understanding the Core Principles

Many misunderstand utilitarianism as opposing pleasure, but J.S. Mill clarifies that it is defined by pleasure itself and the absence of pain.

The Greatest Happiness Principle

Utilitarianism, also known as the Greatest Happiness Principle, posits that actions are right if they promote happiness and wrong if they promote unhappiness. Happiness encompasses pleasure and the absence of pain, while unhappiness involves pain and the deprivation of pleasure.

Quality over Quantity

Mill emphasizes that human pleasures are superior to animalistic ones. When judging an action's morality, we must consider not only the quantity but also the quality of pleasures it produces. Higher pleasures, those engaging... Continue reading "Understanding Utilitarianism: A Comprehensive Guide to J.S. Mill's Philosophy" »

Socrates: Wisdom, Knowledge, and Happiness

Socrates: Wisdom is knowledge that leads to happiness. To be wise, we must know ourselves so we know what we need.

Socrates is not comparable to the Sophists. Socrates believed that the process should make us better to act without imposing our opinions.

The Socratic Method

The Socratic method comprises the maieutics, which can help others learn more about the truth. It is divided into two periods:

1. The first involves Socrates interrogating people on different issues, asking questions until they run out of arguments or contradict themselves. This helps them realize they don't know everything and admit their ignorance, fostering a desire to learn.
2. The second involves maieutics, where the person discovers the

Existentialism and the Meaning of Life

Albert Camus and the Myth of Sisyphus

Existentialism: Life is often seen as pointless and repetitive. Camus explored this in The Myth of Sisyphus, where Sisyphus is condemned to eternally roll a boulder up a hill.

Søren Kierkegaard: Christian Existentialism

Kierkegaard, a Danish existentialist, argued that humans often love an idealistic picture in their minds. He believed that only God can live up to the ideals we hold; He is the only thing worthy of our love and passionate desire, as all other things do not last (Christian Existentialist perspective).

Problem: For the atheist, is God just another fantasy?

Richard Taylor: The Value of Striving

Taylor argues that people think life is meaningless when things... Continue reading "Philosophical Concepts: Existentialism, Ethics, and Free Will" »

Ortega's Period

Ortega was born in Madrid in 1883 and died in 1955. He dedicated himself to his family and political journalism. He spent holidays in Zumaia and Azpeitia. Among his works is "Invertebrate Spain." He was the team director for "The Revolt of the Masses." In "The Revolt of the Masses," the mass-man is satisfied with mediocrity, without personality. In "Beliefs and Ideas," he commented on what we read here. Spain's main instability was during the Restoration, Primo de Rivera's dictatorship, the Second Republic, and the Civil War. The colonies of Cuba and the Philippines were lost, and there was a crisis in agriculture, the economy, and politics. This is called "the Crisis of '98." He was a fan of Neokantianism in the beginning and... Continue reading "Jose Ortega y Gasset: Philosophy and Beliefs in Spain" »

Theory of Knowledge

Saint Augustine sought truth and happiness (bliss), which he believed are found in Christ. He believed that faith and reason are complementary, and that reason is not insufficient. Saint Augustine stated that we can find truth within ourselves, thus negating skepticism. He distinguished between:

• Sensitive Knowledge: Derived from information received through the senses. It is unreliable and represents the lowest level of knowledge.
• Rational Knowledge: Proper to human beings, enabling judgments based on concrete realities, intangible models, and universal and eternal truths.

Truth, according to Augustine, is "the adequacy of the intellect to the thing" (logical truth). It resides in reason and transcends it. Augustine adopted... Continue reading "Saint Augustine's Philosophy: Truth, God, and Humanity" »

Understanding Communication Fundamentals

Communication is a complex process involving several key elements that facilitate the exchange of information and meaning.

Elements of Communication

• Transmitter (Sender): The source initiating the message.
• Receiver: The recipient who interprets the message.
• Content (Message): The information or idea being conveyed.
• Channel (Means of Communication): The medium through which the message is sent (e.g., oral, written, visual).
• Code (Language/Sign-Language): The system of signs and symbols used to encode and decode the message.
• Context (Situation): The circumstances or environment in which communication occurs.

Exploring Language Varieties

Language adapts to various social contexts and levels of formality. Understanding... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Communication, Language, and Poetics" »