Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Language Games

A language game is the use we make of a term to mean something. For example, the term "white" can be used to mean, among other possible uses, "white is the clearest of all colors."

Therefore, the set of language games in which a term appears would be the meaning of that term: the meaning of a word is its method of use.

• Each of the "language games" in which a term appears is the ruling that indicates the "logical" or "grammar" of that term: what makes sense and what does not make sense to use that term, moves allowed and which are not.
• These rules are further instructions for learning this term: learning these rules involves learning the contents of that term and understanding their conceptual load, i.e., knowing how to use it correctly.

Thought and Language

The following positions can be held about the relationship between thought and language:

• Thought is based on and depends on language: Language allows thought to flow, shaping and limiting it. Thinking about nothing is easier than thinking about something concrete.
• Thought is language: Language is a system of signs, which do not necessarily have to be spoken or written.
• Language is based on thought: Thinking is an innate faculty that can be developed and perfected. Language is not innate; it is learned. No one is born knowing how to speak; therefore, thought precedes language.

Language and Reality

Relations between language and reality:

• Human language is conventional. Words do not emerge naturally from things; instead, "all our

Relations of Ideas and Matters of Fact

Matters of Fact

Matters of fact are based on observation and experience, and refer to the facts, all that is available to perception. Knowledge does not allow for strict certainty. Knowledge refers to the empirical world and is based on experience. Unlike mathematics and logic, it does not allow for strict knowledge but is based on probability, because the opposite of each event is always possible, though perhaps foreign to our experience.

The facts are the happenings in the world, the behaviors of things as shown by the senses. The physical facts are given in time and space, and mental events in time. We call the whole experience of perceived facts. A few facts are followed by other facts.

Not to be confused... Continue reading "Understanding Relations of Ideas and Matters of Fact" »

Accidental Changes

When these changes are substantial, the substance is generated and is corrupted. Matter also includes the absolutely indeterminate concept, certainly a subject very close to that area from the Platonic demiurge that configured sensitive objects in the world according to the models of ideas.

Ends and Goods

There are many ends and goods, some of which are subject in a chain to more important ones. The supreme good that we would like to achieve by itself does make a supreme good, there are no others. This is the type of interpretation of happiness.

Three Interpretations of Happiness

• Happiness equals pleasure (vulgar nature)
• Happiness in political or public life, glory, and seeking honor
• Happiness in contemplative or intellectual knowledge

The... Continue reading "Aristotle's Philosophy: Matter, Happiness, Virtue, and Politics" »

Augustine of Hippo (354-430 AD)

Augustine of Hippo, born in Tagaste in 354 AD, explored the relationship between faith and reason.

Faith and Reason: Credo ut intelligam (Believe in Order to Understand)

Augustine sought absolute truth, navigating through Manichaeism and the skepticism of the Platonic Academy before embracing Christianity. Influenced by Neoplatonism, he developed a theory asserting that divine illumination, stemming from innate ideas implanted by God, guides the soul. To maintain this inner light, faith and obedience to God are essential.

Faith, according to Augustine, is not irrational but rather a supernatural and divine source of knowledge obtained through illumination. Through faith, we gain understanding that would otherwise... Continue reading "Augustine & Aquinas: Faith, Reason, and the Existence of God" »

Rousseau: On Freedom and Equality

Historical Context

Jean-Jacques Rousseau belongs to the 18th century, a period dominated by the Enlightenment in both England and France. This era was characterized by full confidence in reason as the primary means to solve human problems.

Theme

The central theme of Rousseau's work, as presented here, is the importance of equality and freedom as the foundation of human coexistence.

Main Ideas

• Equality is necessary for liberty.
• Equality is central to human relations and respect for the State.
• Equality under the law prevents any form of slavery.

Relationship of Ideas

The individual transitions from a state of nature to civil society as a member of a group, yet remains free while subject to the general will, expressed through... Continue reading "Rousseau and Kant: Enlightenment Philosophers on Freedom and Equality" »

Humans: Theory of the Soul

Both philosophers believe in the duality of human beings. While for Plato, the human meaning is an accidental union between body and soul, for Aristotle, these two elements make up a substantial unity, where the body is matter and the soul is the form (Hilemorphism: man is the unit substantially).

Plato's Perspective

For Plato, the soul is the perfection that belongs to the world of ideas and possesses true knowledge. It has three parts: the rational (Auriga), the irascible (white horse), and the concupiscent (black horse). These three parts are explained in the myth of the winged chariot: when the soul loses control of the other parts, it is represented as a chariot that inhabits the world of ideas. In the world, it... Continue reading "Understanding the Duality of Human Existence" »

Chapter Two: Mill's Utilitarianism

Utility and Pleasure

1. Utility is not opposed to pleasure: This includes beauty, decoration, fun, etc.

2. Utility is not just pleasure: It also encompasses the release from pain.

Definition of Utility

Net: Moral foundation.

Pleasure and pain are not the ultimate ends of moral action.

Synopsis: Critique of Pig's Moral Theory

This theory ignores the specific pleasures of being human.

It focuses on the circumstantial advantages of intellectual pleasures.

Mill's Contribution

Mill argues for different qualities of pleasure.

Test for Higher Pleasures

Humans prefer higher pleasures (universal suffrage among those who know all pleasures).

Reason for Choosing Higher Pleasures

Some say it's due to pride, love of freedom, independence,... Continue reading "Mill's Utilitarianism: A Summary of Chapter Two" »

Reason and Faith: Augustine intensely explored the relationship between reason and faith. In his youth, he left the Church due to the perceived incompatibility between the two. However, upon his return, he insisted that intellectuals must not abandon their rational demands when embracing faith.

A) The Harmony of Reason and Faith: Augustine believed in a single truth illuminated by two sources: reason and faith. While faith is the more powerful source, leading to the fullness of truth, both are in harmony.

B) Distinct but Not Confused: Augustine clearly distinguished between reason and faith, a distinction accessible to everyone.

C) Collaborative Discovery of Truth: Augustine's formula, "Ut credas intelligas. Crede ut intelligas" ("Believe to understand.... Continue reading "Reason and Faith in Augustine's Philosophy" »

Philosophical Views on the Soul

Plato established a dualism between the sensible world and the world of ideas, which results in a dualism between body and soul in anthropology. For Plato, man is a spiritual and eternal soul locked within a body. The authentic and genuine self of man is the soul, destined for wisdom. Body and soul are two heterogeneous realities. The body is of a material nature and belongs to the world of the senses, while the soul is spiritual and belongs to the intelligible world. The soul's natural place is the intelligible world, not close to the body.

For Plato, the soul has three distinct parts:

• The rational soul: Immortal, intelligent, and of divine nature. It is the most noble and high, as its business is to know intellectually