Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The Nature of Knowledge: Senses and Reason

Reason and the senses are two primary "instruments" we use to experience reality. Thanks to our senses, we are aware of what is going on around us, which helps us to survive.

Sensitive knowledge is the result of processing all this information in our minds.

Sensitive Knowledge: Perception & Sensation

The information that reaches our senses is made up of sensations and perception. Sensations are psycho-physical phenomena. They occur when our sensory organs are stimulated. Perception is the interpretation of sensations captured by our senses. Both sensations and perception are selective.

The Role of Reason in Human Cognition

Reason, as a cognitive faculty, is exclusive to human beings. Only human beings... Continue reading "Human Understanding: Senses, Reason, and Knowledge Theories" »

   1.Argument: a set Of propositions consisting of premises and a conclusion.Deduction: Arguments where the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises.Induction: Arguments where the conclusion follows from the premises with some degree of Probability. Validity: when It is impossible for a deductive argument to have all true premises and a false Conclusion. Soundness: when a Deductive argument is valid and all the premises are actually true.Strength: when The conclusion is probable/likely relative to the premises in an inductive Argument. Reliability: when An inductive argument is strong and all the premises are actually true.It is important because is like the basis of Everything. It brings some structure of were to start the argument,

Machiavelli, Natural Law, and Virtù

Niccolò Machiavelli introduces a realism closer to Aristotle than to Plato, but he is also developing and applying the Stoic and Christian idea of natural law.

In Machiavelli’s hands, natural law becomes elevated above divine law and connected to the notion of good ruling or ability, known as virtù.

Defining the State

What is the State?

According to Velasquez: “The state is the highest authority in a society, with a legal power to define the public interest and enforce its definition” (520).

Contract Theory and Political Legitimacy

Contract Theory is one of the most influential theories in modern political philosophy. It posits that a healthy government and state derive their legitimacy from an agreement... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Modern Political Philosophy and Theory" »

Forms of Economic Morality in Society

This treatise explores three distinct forms of economic morality inherent in every society. These are:

• Communism
• Exchange
• Hierarchy

It's crucial to understand that these are not political regimes; rather, they are fundamental principles that coexist and combine within any given society.

The Principle of Communism in Society

It is vital not to confuse this concept of communism with the political ideology associated with the USSR; these are distinct terms. The economic morality of communism, as discussed here, defines any human relationship operating under the principles of "each according to his possibilities; each according to his needs."

This principle forms the very basis of human sociability, making society... Continue reading "Understanding Economic Morality: Social Systems and Human Interaction" »

Philosophical Perspectives on Existence and Morality

Thomas Aquinas: Arguments for God's Existence

In his cosmological arguments, Thomas Aquinas presents his explanations for God's existence. His first argument, the Argument from Contingency, posits that everything in our world is dependent on something else for its existence. Therefore, there must be an independent Prime Mover—a first cause—that initiated everything into motion at the beginning of the universe.

Aquinas's fourth argument, the Argument from Gradations of Perfection, suggests that if individuals can judge some things as more perfect than others, then an ultimate source of perfection must exist.

His fifth argument, the Argument from Design, explains that the universe exhibits... Continue reading "Philosophical Debates: Existence, Morality, and Human Nature" »

BEAUTY AND AESTHETICS

What is beauty?: The human capacity to feel something or have sensations. In philosophy, AESTHETICS refers to a particular type of sensations: those related to beauty and ugliness

Philosophers and Beauty

The Greek philosophers believed that beauty is real by itself

Realists think that beauty is part of something else

Modernists believe that beauty is something we create

AESTHETICS-The study of beauty or the philosophy of art

THE AESTHETIC EXPERIENCE-When an encounter with beauty occurs, whether it is the product of nature or art

1. Feeling that time has stopped
2. Lightness in the perception of reality.
3. Forgetting self
4. Symbolic.
5. Ephemeral.
6. Pleasurable

The definition of beauty (according to aesthetics)

1. PERFECTION OF FORM
2. NEATNESS
3. AN ATTRACTIVE

Plato's Forms of Government and Political Hierarchy

True Forms of Government (Rule for the Whole)

• Kingship
• Aristocracy

False Forms of Government (Rule for Themselves)

• Oligarchy
• Tyranny
• Democracy

Plato's Political Hierarchy and Ruling Elements

Plato outlines a hierarchy of political systems, correlating them with the ruling element of the soul:

1. Kingship / Aristocracy: The best form, ruled by philosopher kings (the rational element).
2. Timocracy: The honor-spirited element is ruling. This form is proposed as the balance between the ultimate best and the ultimate worst.
3. Oligarchy: Ruled by necessary appetites (wealth).
4. Democracy: Ruled by unnecessary appetites (excessive freedom).
5. Tyranny: The worst form, ruled by unlawful and unnecessary appetites; it enslaves

Introduction to Metaphysics

Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy which questions reality. Why do things and beings exist? What are they? Where do we come from? Metaphysical doctrines have always been developed to oppose rival doctrines.

Metaphysical categories: unity-plurality, reality-appearance, essence-existence, necessity-contingency, matter-spirit

Metaphysical doctrines: monism-pluralism, essentialism-existentialism, materialism-dualism

The Criteria of Demarcation

The Criteria of Demarcation For science to be considered scientific, criteria were established to distinguish between what is a scientific discipline and what is not. Verificationism and falsificationism propose two different sets of criteria.

Verificationism states that only theories... Continue reading "Metaphysics, Scientific Method, and Cosmology: A Historical Overview" »

Teenagers and Unhealthy Diets

Some teenagers tend to eat unhealthy diets due to a lack of awareness about the consequences. These diets are often the easiest options, primarily because parents don't always educate their children about the potential health risks. Moreover, junk food is often easier to prepare, more affordable, and tends to be tastier. However, tastiness doesn't equate to healthiness. We are constantly bombarded with tempting advertisements for unhealthy food, whether through digital media, television, or even on the street. Think of McDonald's, Burger King, and Telepizza constantly showcasing their appealing yet unhealthy products.

Promoting Healthy Habits

We need collective campaigns to promote both sports and healthy, varied... Continue reading "Teen Diets & Cousin Moha: Health, Humor, and Family Ties" »

Humanism

Humanism was the first cultural movement to develop an anthropocentric worldview. It defended that human beings, their intelligence and their love of knowledge were some of the main concerns of humanists, even though they were at the service of the Christian faith.

Empiricism

Empiricism claimed that we should not accept reasoning that could not be empirically validated through observation and experimentation.

Rationalism

Rationalism stated that the truths established by authority and tradition should be criticised, and that reason was the only valid criterion.

Science

Science is knowledge obtained through observation and reasoning, with a systematic structure from which we deduce general principles and laws that can be verified experimentally.... Continue reading "From Humanism to the Industrial Revolution: Key Movements and Concepts" »