Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

What are the Three Prongs of the Lemon Test?

• (1) It must have a "secular legislative purpose"
• (2) Neutral
• (3) Avoid an "excessive government entanglement with religion."
  • Establishment Clause prevents the government from creating an official church, from preferring one faith over another, and from discriminating against non-believers.

Different Ways to View the Establishment Clause and What Was the Only Reason...

• Accommodationist: According to the "accommodationist view," government needs religion to instill the moral values required for maintaining civil order. Modern-day accommodationists also argue that religion is part of the national heritage, and adds solemnity and dignity to civic events. Accordingly, accommodationists contend that government

Emblematic Art and Imagery

"In Occasionem"

The structure uses a question-and-answer format. The lady depicted is called “Occasio Calvata” (The Bald Opportunity/Passion). This image is part of a political pamphlet where the central idea is repeated consistently. The designs are repetitive: the image is surrounded by a frame, followed by the text. The woman in the image resembles a Venus figure.

"Pulchritudo sine fructu"

In this image, we see a tree—a cypress—in the middle of a hill. There are more hills behind it. One of the distant hills features a structure resembling a coliseum, and further back are more hills and mountains. They appear to be located on the coast. In the sky, we can observe only one cloud and four birds.

The Pre-Raphaelite

Hobbes's State of Nature and the Origin of Society

1. The State of Nature

Modern thinkers like Hobbes and Rousseau agree on the possibility of a state of nature without society, diverging from classical and medieval thinkers such as Plato and Aristotle, who believed humans were inherently social. Aristotle famously stated, "For living without society, you need to be a God or a Beast." Even today, some agree with this classical perspective. Hobbes, however, envisioned a state of nature defined by specific human characteristics:

• Selfishness and Instrumental Reason: Reason serves as a tool for selfish pursuits, driven by passions and desires.
• Equality: Despite minor differences in strength or ability, everyone is fundamentally equal because even

Statesmanship and Warcraft

Machiavelli believes that good laws follow naturally from a good military. Machiavelli reverses the conventional understanding of war as a necessary, but not definitive, element of the development of states. Instead, he asserts that successful war is the very foundation upon which all states are built. Much of The Prince is devoted to describing exactly what it means to conduct a good war. But Machiavelli's description of war encompasses more than just the direct use of military force when cities were constantly threatened by neighboring principalities, and the area had suffered through power struggles for many years.

Goodwill and Hatred

To remain in power, a prince must avoid the hatred of his people. It is not necessary... Continue reading "Machiavelli and Mill: Power, Liberty, and Human Nature" »

1. Justice and the Principle of Utility

Why is Justice a Problem for Utilitarianism?

The Principle of Utility often faces challenges regarding justice. One perspective suggests that it is acceptable for inequalities to develop if they meet two conditions:

1. They contribute to the overall good in the long run.
2. They can be achieved by anyone (fair opportunity).

4. Moral Issues Raised by Computers

Defining Analogical Reasoning in Ethics

Analogical reasoning serves as a crucial tool for comparing known moral baselines to situations where the morality is uncertain. By comparing similar cases that the observer already understands, conclusions can be drawn about a new, relatively similar topic.

Are Computer Ethics Truly New?

(See also Section 9 for further discussion... Continue reading "Key Ethical Concepts: Justice, Corporate Responsibility, and Software IP" »

Plato

Was a disciple of Socrates whose cornerstone of thought was his theory of Forms, in which there was another world of perfection. Uses thought to advance the Socratic dialogue. Dualistic Vision

Aristotle

Greek philosopher. A student of Plato, the tutor of Alexander the Great, and the author of works on logic, metaphysics, ethics, natural sciences, politics, and poetics, theory follows empirical observation and logic, based on the syllogism, is the essential method of rational inquiry. Pluralistic Vision

Socrates

Greek philosopher; Socratic method--questioning; sentenced to death for corrupting Athens youth

Alexander the Great

Student of Aristotle, King of Macedonia who conquered Greece, Egypt, and Persia

Academy

school of philosophy founded by... Continue reading "Plato vs. Aristotle: Philosophy, Society, and Human Nature" »

According to Marxist theory, the mode of production determines the structure of society. The capitalist mode, based on the private ownership of the means of production, divides society into two antagonistic classes: the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. The nature and structure of any society are defined by the prevailing mode of production. A change in this mode of production also transforms the entire social system, including its ideas and institutions. Such a change in the mode of production constitutes a revolution.

Karl Marx analyzed the evolution of the production process across various historical societies, demonstrating how it has changed throughout history depending on the mode of production in each period. He identified two key levels:... Continue reading "Marxist Theory: Production, Class, and Ideology" »

Descartes and the Challenge of Modernity

Descartes faces the challenge of modernity by trying to unify the fundamental knowledge of science and philosophy.

This unification is achieved through mathematical expression that is intuitive rather than deductive.

The method revolves around the self, which becomes the center of philosophy in two ways:

• The self is the beginning of the method.
• The self is the certainty of that knowledge and shares the great theme of modern philosophy, as opposed to medieval philosophy, in which God and the world were the key issues.

By focusing on self-philosophical inquiry, Descartes comes to idealism. Idealism posits that we cannot know reality directly but indirectly through ideas. It is divided into:

• Rationalists: Ideas

Descartes' Philosophy

The Existence of the World

To address the existence of the physical world, Descartes examines the ideas of sensible things. Given our natural inclination to believe these ideas originate from the sensible world, and considering God's non-deceptive nature, Descartes concludes that this inclination is truthful. Therefore, sensible things exist extramentally, guaranteed by God's veracity. However, only what is clearly and distinctly perceived—extension, movement, and shape (primary qualities)—holds true external existence. Other qualities like sound, color, and taste (secondary qualities) are subjective, existing only within the perceiver. This aligns with Galileo's distinction between primary and secondary qualities.

Anthropological

The Essence of Romantic Relationships

People commonly ask: "Why get involved in a romantic relationship? What benefits do they offer?" These are crucial questions when faced with the decision of getting involved with someone.

The Foundation of Lasting Love: Friendship

Friendship is the bedrock that makes love endure. The camaraderie brings two people closer together. A romantic partner is someone in whom to confide, and with whom to share life's great problems. They are there to console and comfort in hours of need. When a couple starts out as friends, they build a stronger alliance, which is often why romance blossoms from friendship.

The Importance of Courtship and Appreciation

Courtship plays a vital role in romantic relationships. Partners need... Continue reading "The Dynamics of Lasting Romantic Relationships" »