Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Consciousness and Human Existence

Consciousness is relational. It implies the conscious human being, always open to reality. Reflexive consciousness is at all times self-aware. This awareness recognizes us as finite beings ('our days are numbered') and fosters intimacy. The human way of acting has two dimensions:

• First dimension: Humans are freed from the tyranny of stimuli and can decide their behavior.
• Second dimension: We determine our behavior because we have enjoyed the power of actualizing some of the possibilities we have at our disposal.

Key Factors in Human Evolution

• Standing: Walking upright on two legs implies a system that moves us away from solar radiation and allows for high endurance. Aristotle called it the "instrument of instruments.

Understanding Metaphysics

The word "metaphysics" was coined in the 1st century BC to refer to a book in Aristotle's works that followed physics and dealt with the first principles of all sciences. It came to be used for knowledge that falls outside the scope of the positive sciences, encompassing philosophical knowledge.

Metaphysics explores concepts like truth, knowledge, the soul, God, and the good. The distinction between the forces of nature and philosophy lies not only in their subjects of study but also in the degree of verification involved:

Science precisely defines its object of study, continuously refines its testing procedures, and expresses findings in precise language. The strength of scientific evidence is such that it typically... Continue reading "Understanding Metaphysics: Truth, Knowledge, and Being" »

Aristotle's Political Philosophy: The Ideal Constitution

The Role of the Citizen and the State

Citizens partner to live virtuously within their community. The state's role is to create conditions conducive to this good life. Integrating good and righteous citizens, the state aims to foster a moral life and common law based on participation and decision-making.

From Village to Polis

Domestic communities address basic human needs. However, a village alone is insufficient. It must be part of a larger unit (the Polis) to achieve its full potential.

Aristotle's Study of Governments

Aristotle studied various government types, analyzing around 150 constitutions from different cities. He classified them based on the number of rulers:

• Monarchy: Rule by one
• Aristocracy:

Freedom as Autonomy

Freedom is autonomy:

1. Freedom of Choice

Our will is determined by our previous way of being, not arbitrary. Indifference to two equally attractive things is not enough, because then the choices would be irrational and arbitrary. Deliberation after the selection is a good reason. Those who believe in economic rationality think that humans always choose to minimize costs and maximize profits.

2. The Concept of Autonomy

Human beings can self-select our goals. Kant said that freedom is the moral law, or *the* law. There are two approaches:

• Natural-law: People view events from outside of their will.
• Human Will View: We are creating the law of freedom, as rational beings. Thanks to them, we organize our way of life and human coexistence.

It was hoped that all citizens would be happy, with constructive possibilities opening up. The society was founded on individualism, where each person fought for their own happiness. This focus on personal interests and the pursuit of happiness was seen as a calculation of life. In America, individualism is a way of life consistent with the requirements of freedom and responsibility, as established during the American Revolution and its underlying religious beliefs.

Tocqueville believed that Europe would not achieve stability with its system. Individualism bears the worst effects when it completely dominates social life, posing the greatest danger: that individuals will not be interested in public life. The virtues of individualism include perseverance,... Continue reading "Individualism's Impact on Society: A Tocqueville Perspective" »

Value of Interest and Amount

The security interest is a quantitative assessment. In damage insurance, the value of interest is determined by objective criteria that take into account the value of the thing at the time of the accident. In personal insurance, by contrast, the value of the interest is usually set by fixed amounts agreed upon beforehand.

Insured Amount, Full Insurance, Overinsurance, and Underinsurance

The insured amount represents the maximum compensation payable by the insurer for each incident. The sum insured is also known as the capital insured. The ratio of the value of interest and the insurance amount results in situations of full insurance, underinsurance, and overinsurance. Overinsurance and underinsurance can be caused... Continue reading "Understanding Insurance: Coverage, Premiums, and Claims" »

René Descartes (1596-1650)

Baroque Philosopher

Inventor of the Cartesian project, which examines the structure and functioning of reason through four steps:

• Intuition: Clear and evident self-knowledge.
• Deduction: Argumentative chain leading to a conclusion.
• Analysis: Breaking a whole into parts.
• Summary: Recomposition of the essential.

Descartes employs methodic doubt with three parts:

• The fallacy of the senses: Sensory world is uncertain.
• Inability to distinguish waking from sleep: No definitive proof of wakefulness.
• Evil spirit: Doubt even in mathematics.

Descartes' first truth: "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am), proving the Cogitans (mental side). Criterion of validity: Truths must be clear and distinct.

Ideas are divided into:

• Adventitious:

Epicurus on Achieving Happiness

According to Epicurus, happiness can be achieved through two complementary approaches: a negative path focused on eliminating suffering, and a positive path centered on cultivating pleasures.

The Negative Path: Eliminating Pain and Fear

This approach involves avoiding physical pain and ridding oneself of unfounded fears. Epicurus identified common fears and argued why they are irrational:

• Fear of the Gods: There is no need to fear the gods. Either they do not exist, or if they do, their transcendent nature means they are not concerned with human affairs and do not intervene in our lives.
• Fear of Death: Death should not be feared. When we are alive, death is not present; when death arrives, we no longer exist to experience

Ockham's Razor: The Principle of Simplicity

Ockham's Razor is a principle that states that entities should not be multiplied without necessity. Based on this principle, one must always seek the simplest explanation, using only the necessary elements. With his "razor," Ockham sought to demonstrate that most philosophical questions are either false or can be explained without resorting to the language and concepts of metaphysics. To explain unique realities, the individual finds concepts such as essence and existence, substance and accident, efficient cause and final cause, and understanding and patient agent entirely unnecessary. The razor removes these terms, which are empty of meaning, from the Ockhamist language, as they only create false... Continue reading "Ockham's Razor: Simplicity in Philosophy and Science" »

The Evolutionary Process

Evolution, broadly defined, is a process of development and change. It offers a unified account of reality: from simple to complex, from inorganic matter to organic life. Life begins in basic forms, becoming increasingly complex and diverse, differentiating into various species, and ultimately leading to human life as we know it.

Understanding Human Origins

Several approaches explain the origin and evolution of the human species:

• Religious Explanations: Mythical tales, such as the story of Adam and Eve in Genesis, or Hesiod's Theogony.
• Scientific Approach: The empirical method of observation and demonstration. Anthropology studies human development from its origins. Many ideas about our past remain hypotheses, subject