Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Nietzsche's philosophy begins with the cultural diagnosis of nihilism. This nihilism is the historical event that Nietzsche called the "death of God."

From Socrates and Plato onward, the Western tradition understood that true reality, the source of meaning and intelligibility, lies in a parallel world. For Plato, this is the world of forms, and Christianity, as the heir of Platonism, calls it the "beyond."

This world of forms, or the "beyond," acted as a standard and measure of truth and goodness, the source of all that is true and good in the world. According to Nietzsche, modernity has brought about a progressive destruction of that order that gave meaning to the supersensible reality from Plato. Modern science has rendered any concept of God... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: Nihilism, Death of God, and the Superman" »

Kant's Critique of Traditional Metaphysics

Kant conceives of traditional metaphysics as dogmatic speculation, unsubstantiated and false wisdom, founded only in analytic judgments. This widespread practice seeks truth by considering subjective and objective factors. Kant questions how metaphysical claims are possible. For Kant, the existence of metaphysics as a science (ciencia) depends on certain requirements. All scientific knowledge must expand our understanding and be universal, such that everyone can share in its consensus without doubt or differences. Metaphysical principles and presuppositions do not meet these requirements, as they are founded on analytic judgments that are necessary but do not contribute anything new to knowledge. Metaphysics... Continue reading "Kant's Critique of Metaphysics: Synthetic A Priori Knowledge" »

Kant's Philosophy

Between these two categories, there are two wrecks: Hume's substance and the cause. Categories are given legitimate application to phenomena based on perceptions and lose that legitimacy when we endeavor to apply them to non-empirical or supersensible realities.

Kant again emphasizes the difference between phenomenon and thing in itself.

Kant goes on to show that metaphysics cannot be a science because it lacks the empirical conditions. This is because it looks at God, spirit, and matter (the universe).

The Moral Principles of the Law

Reason is the faculty of reasoning. An argument is a chain of trials. To link the early trials, they are needed. The only way to relate judgments is by linking all trials, each in turn belonging to... Continue reading "Kant's Philosophy: Categories, Metaphysics, and Moral Principles" »

Plato's Ethical Conception of Mathematical Ideas

In The Republic, Plato presents an ethical conception of mathematical ideas. He posits that mathematical ideas exist, and since mathematics is considered a form of rational knowledge, it must have a purpose. This aligns with the existence of ethical ideas, or value-ideas (goodness, beauty, value), which are objects of philosophical knowledge. Plato believed that ideas are interconnected through the idea of property. The idea of good serves as both a cause and a final cause. By introducing a final cause, Plato breaks from the previous mechanistic view and opens the door to a teleological explanation of the world, later developed by Aristotle. This perspective suggests that everything that exists... Continue reading "Plato's Philosophy: Ethics, Politics, and the Ideal State" »

Critique of Pure Reason

Distinguishes two things: the theoretical use and the practical use of reason (metaphysics and ethics). When called pure reason, it refers to reason that is not mixed with anything empirical, which is a priori. Regarding the possibility of metaphysics as a science, Kant stated: "I had to suppress the knowledge to make room for faith."

The conclusion of Kant's metaphysics is that he is agnostic, but he supports the postulates of practical reason: God, Freedom, and Immortality.

Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals

This work focuses on ethics, but above all, the triple formulation of the categorical imperative:

1. "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law."

The World and Principles of Material Things

When you have demonstrated the existence of God, as an assurance criterion of truth, we have the opportunity to demonstrate the existence of corporeal things, the world. Since God exists, he cannot deceive me into believing that the world exists if it does not; therefore, we conclude that the world exists. Returning to the theory of the objective reality of ideas, this theory posits that the causes of ideas of sensible things are corporeal things, and these corporeal things do exist. God guarantees the truth, but error is not attributable to God; rather, it arises when we deceive ourselves by misinterpreting.

Theory of Substance

Descartes identified three domains of reality: God (or infinite substance)... Continue reading "Descartes: World, Substance, and Mechanism" »

Philosophical Knowledge

Rationalist Methods

Rationalists employ methods that empirical rationalists defend. Empiricists rely on experience and deductive methods. Rationalists argue that experience is unreliable. Some embrace the idea of innate rationalist imagination, independent of sensory sources. Descartes proposed two key ideas:

1. "I think, therefore I am."
2. The concept of infinity originates without sensory input.

Empiricists oppose rationalism.

Inductive and Deductive Procedures

These procedures are fundamental to experimental science and mathematics.

Transcendental Methods

Kant critiqued both rationalist and empiricist approaches in the 18th century. He argued that knowledge arises from both experience and reason. He questioned the foundations of... Continue reading "Understanding Philosophical Knowledge: Rationalism, Empiricism, and Language" »

Texts

According to Hobbes

Theme

The need for the state to establish order among humans.

Auxiliary Idea

End state.

Terms

• State: Characterized by the instrument that holds political power, it can be defined as an association of a complex type. Within a given territory, it successfully monopolizes legitimate violence as an instrument of domination.
• War: The result of the natural passions of men when there is no visible power to keep them in fear, and the threat of punishment to force them to comply with covenants and observe the laws of nature.

Do I need the state? Why? The state guarantees peace, order, and security.

According to Marx

Topic

Comparison of a capitalist state with a state of slavery.

Auxiliary Idea

The basis for the rule of seniority was slavery;... Continue reading "Hobbes, Marx, Ortega y Gasset: State, Power, and Society" »

Philosophy: Definition and Origins

Definition of Philosophy: Philosophy is the knowledge of all beings by their root causes, acquired by the natural light of reason.

Reality and Wonder

Reality to the Wonder: A human being's attitude of admiring everything for which there is no explanation.

The Questioning Attitude

Questioning Attitude Features: For investigating the causes of the phenomena we observe and connections between them, in order to find the ultimate foundations of reality.

Origin of Philosophy

Origin of Philosophy: In Miletus, an ancient Greek city in the sixth century BC.

Factors Favoring the Origin of Philosophy

• Participation of citizens in the polis.
• Cultural exchange with other Mediterranean peoples.
• The importance of education in Greek

Plato: Combating Skepticism

Combating the skepticism and relativism of sophists. Theory of Ideas: Duality between the sensible and intelligible world. The soul (Psyche) as a tool to know the ideas of mathematics served. Division of the mind into three parts and the state into three classes. Parallelism between them. Preference for aristocracy as a form of government.

Similarities with Others

• The ideas coincide with the universal concepts of Socrates.
• Aristotle agrees with Plato in the mind of reason and the need to control instincts. Also coincides with aristocracy as the best form of government.
• Descartes agrees with Plato on the existence of reason as a source of knowledge.
• Plato is accused of communism by his approach to the Republic and therefore