Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Hobbes's State of Nature and the Origin of Society

1. The State of Nature

Modern thinkers like Hobbes and Rousseau agree on the possibility of a state of nature without society, diverging from classical and medieval thinkers such as Plato and Aristotle, who believed humans were inherently social. Aristotle famously stated, "For living without society, you need to be a God or a Beast." Even today, some agree with this classical perspective. Hobbes, however, envisioned a state of nature defined by specific human characteristics:

• Selfishness and Instrumental Reason: Reason serves as a tool for selfish pursuits, driven by passions and desires.
• Equality: Despite minor differences in strength or ability, everyone is fundamentally equal because even

Statesmanship and Warcraft

Machiavelli believes that good laws follow naturally from a good military. Machiavelli reverses the conventional understanding of war as a necessary, but not definitive, element of the development of states. Instead, he asserts that successful war is the very foundation upon which all states are built. Much of The Prince is devoted to describing exactly what it means to conduct a good war. But Machiavelli's description of war encompasses more than just the direct use of military force when cities were constantly threatened by neighboring principalities, and the area had suffered through power struggles for many years.

Goodwill and Hatred

To remain in power, a prince must avoid the hatred of his people. It is not necessary... Continue reading "Machiavelli and Mill: Power, Liberty, and Human Nature" »

Causation

Causation is focused on D's carelessness caused the C's injury.

2 tiers of causation: Factual, Legal

Factual: link between def breach & c's loss is known as the 'but for' test. - But for the C has suffered injury/ loss.

'But for' Case

* Cork v Kirby MaClean

Denning LJ: If you can say the damage would not happen for particular fault, then the fault is caused by damage. But if you say the damage would happen the same, fault or not, the fault is not a cause of damage.

Multiple Tort

*Fairchild v Glenhaven Funeras Service

C suffered mesothelioma which caused negligently exposure to asbestos by employers. Due to insufficient evidence, C unable to show which employer satisfied causation. Lord Bigham held that McGhee test would apply when 6 conditions:... Continue reading "Causation and Liability in Tort Law" »

Plato

Was a disciple of Socrates whose cornerstone of thought was his theory of Forms, in which there was another world of perfection. Uses thought to advance the Socratic dialogue. Dualistic Vision

Aristotle

Greek philosopher. A student of Plato, the tutor of Alexander the Great, and the author of works on logic, metaphysics, ethics, natural sciences, politics, and poetics, theory follows empirical observation and logic, based on the syllogism, is the essential method of rational inquiry. Pluralistic Vision

Socrates

Greek philosopher; Socratic method--questioning; sentenced to death for corrupting Athens youth

Alexander the Great

Student of Aristotle, King of Macedonia who conquered Greece, Egypt, and Persia

Academy

school of philosophy founded by... Continue reading "Plato vs. Aristotle: Philosophy, Society, and Human Nature" »

Descartes and the Challenge of Modernity

Descartes faces the challenge of modernity by trying to unify the fundamental knowledge of science and philosophy.

This unification is achieved through mathematical expression that is intuitive rather than deductive.

The method revolves around the self, which becomes the center of philosophy in two ways:

• The self is the beginning of the method.
• The self is the certainty of that knowledge and shares the great theme of modern philosophy, as opposed to medieval philosophy, in which God and the world were the key issues.

By focusing on self-philosophical inquiry, Descartes comes to idealism. Idealism posits that we cannot know reality directly but indirectly through ideas. It is divided into:

• Rationalists: Ideas

Descartes' Philosophy

The Existence of the World

To address the existence of the physical world, Descartes examines the ideas of sensible things. Given our natural inclination to believe these ideas originate from the sensible world, and considering God's non-deceptive nature, Descartes concludes that this inclination is truthful. Therefore, sensible things exist extramentally, guaranteed by God's veracity. However, only what is clearly and distinctly perceived—extension, movement, and shape (primary qualities)—holds true external existence. Other qualities like sound, color, and taste (secondary qualities) are subjective, existing only within the perceiver. This aligns with Galileo's distinction between primary and secondary qualities.

Anthropological

Symbolism in Literature

Symbolism in literature was a complex movement that extended the evocative power of words to express the feelings, sensations, and states of mind that lie beyond everyday awareness.

Charles Baudelaire and Open-Ended Symbols

Charles Baudelaire created open-ended symbols. He brought the invisible into being through the visible and linked the invisible through other sensory perceptions, notably smell and sound.

A symbol is a keyhole to a different world, giving way to ambitions.

Poets focused on their inner life. They explored strange cults and countries. They wrote in allusive, enigmatic, musical, and ambiguous styles.

W.B. Yeats (1865-1939) and Irish Literature

W.B. Yeats (1865-1939) - Irish literature

• On Baile's Strand (1903)

Ortega y Gasset's Philosophy

Bridging Reason and Life

In "The Theme of Our Time," Ortega y Gasset seeks to reconcile the Western tradition of reason with the concept of life. This work marks the mature stage of his thought, known as ratio-vitalism. The final chapter, "The Doctrine of View," argues that every individual, group, and generation arrives at truth through their unique perspective. The totality of these perspectives constitutes the whole truth, built and revealed throughout history.

Three Stages of Thought

Ortega y Gasset's thought evolves through three stages: objectivist, perspectival, and ratio-vitalist.

1. Objectivism

Initially, he believed in the possibility of attaining objective truth.

2. Perspectivism

This stage, represented by works... Continue reading "Ortega y Gasset's Philosophy of Perspectivism and Ratio-Vitalism" »

J.S. Mill's Utilitarianism

Understanding the Core Principles

Many misunderstand utilitarianism as opposing pleasure, but J.S. Mill clarifies that it is defined by pleasure itself and the absence of pain.

The Greatest Happiness Principle

Utilitarianism, also known as the Greatest Happiness Principle, posits that actions are right if they promote happiness and wrong if they promote unhappiness. Happiness encompasses pleasure and the absence of pain, while unhappiness involves pain and the deprivation of pleasure.

Quality over Quantity

Mill emphasizes that human pleasures are superior to animalistic ones. When judging an action's morality, we must consider not only the quantity but also the quality of pleasures it produces. Higher pleasures, those engaging... Continue reading "Understanding Utilitarianism: A Comprehensive Guide to J.S. Mill's Philosophy" »

Socrates: Wisdom, Knowledge, and Happiness

Socrates: Wisdom is knowledge that leads to happiness. To be wise, we must know ourselves so we know what we need.

Socrates is not comparable to the Sophists. Socrates believed that the process should make us better to act without imposing our opinions.

The Socratic Method

The Socratic method comprises the maieutics, which can help others learn more about the truth. It is divided into two periods:

1. The first involves Socrates interrogating people on different issues, asking questions until they run out of arguments or contradict themselves. This helps them realize they don't know everything and admit their ignorance, fostering a desire to learn.
2. The second involves maieutics, where the person discovers the