Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Key Characteristics of Insurance Contracts

• Unilateral: A contract where only one party makes an enforceable promise, while the other party follows the established conditions.
• Conditional: The insurer's obligation is triggered only upon the occurrence of a specific insured event.
• Aleatory: Performance depends on an uncertain future event; payment is only made if the event occurs.
• Adhesion: The contract is drafted by the party with greater bargaining power; the other party must accept or reject the terms as-is, without negotiation.

The Underwriting Process

Underwriting is the process of evaluating future risks to determine appropriate pricing. Insurance companies generate revenue through underwriting (collecting premiums) and investing. Premiums must... Continue reading "Key Characteristics of Insurance Contracts and Underwriting" »

Tema IV: El hombre, ser libre

Significados históricos de la libertad

Significados históricos de la libertad

The idea of freedom has acquired different meanings, even contradictory ones, throughout history. These are some of the meanings that freedom has had:

• a) Physical freedom: associated with economic or property freedom.
• b) Freedom as wisdom: If you do not know what to do, you probably are not free. One of the great dangers of freedom is ignorance. But do not exaggerate it: knowing does not make you totally free.
• c) Freedom as prior or superior to wisdom (Aristotle): deliberation — a rationalistic assessment. Judgment of the intelligence, judgment of the will. If they agree, the decision is immediate. In the case of a collision between these

Principles of Logic

Principle of Identity

An object is the same as itself: A is A → A = A.

Principle of Contradiction

Nothing can both be and not be in the same sense at the same time. Contradictory statements cannot both be true: Nothing can be A and not A → ¬(A ∧ ¬A).

Principle of Excluded Middle

Everything must either be or not be. Every statement must be either true or false: Everything is A or not A → A ∨ ¬A.

Logical Paradoxes, Fallacies, and Invalid Arguments

Consider the statement: "This statement is false." This proposition creates a paradox. If we assume it's true, then its content declares it false. Conversely, if we assume it's false, then its content implies it's true. This self-contradictory statement challenges basic logical... Continue reading "Fundamentals of Logic: Principles and Applications" »

Key Ethical Concepts and Definitions

Ethics: A tool that helps in making decisions and rules of behavior based on what is morally right.

Moral Dilemmas: Conflicts where there are no clear or exact solutions; you have to make the best decision that will still affect others.

Norms: Standards of proper behavior.

Morality: Right and wrong behavior.

Human Act vs. Act of Man: An action that is voluntary; an act of man involves thought and a taken decision.

Values and Anti-values:

• Ethical Values: The capacity for determining importance in situations.
• Moral Values: Guidelines that assist in deciding between right and wrong.
• Anti-values: A predictable outcome.

Ethics in the Digital Age

Sharenting: When tutors share excessive information and/or photos of their... Continue reading "Ethics, Philosophy, and Human Behavior Fundamentals" »

Imperialist Reason: Bourdieu & Wacquant's Critique

Note on notation: ≠ means 'is/are not'; = means 'is/are' or 'means'.

Understanding Cultural Imperialism

• Cultural imperialism rests on the power to universalize particularisms linked to a historical tradition. Indeed, nothing is more universal than the pretension to the universal, or more accurately, to the universalization of a particular vision of the world.
• The central focus of this text is **universalization** across philosophical, sociological, historical, and political dimensions.
• This universalization, reinforced by media repetition and broadcast, progressively transforms specific facts into universal common sense.
• Cultural imperialism, whether American or otherwise, imposes itself most

Tema IV. El hombre, ser libre

La indeterminación de la libertad

El ser humano posee una tendencia hacia lo infinito, una inclinación ilimitada que trasciende las contradicciones. Este es el factor más decisivo: podemos romper nuestra cadena de necesidades básicas. La vida humana debe calificarse como una satisfacción parcial, por lo que nuestra libertad está intrínsecamente asociada a la responsabilidad.

Los límites: determinación a la felicidad

A pesar de nuestra tendencia a lo eterno, enfrentamos limitaciones. El ser humano aspira a la felicidad, pero nuestras decisiones están condicionadas por la ignorancia; no podemos desear ni realizar aquello que desconocemos, y existen formas de ignorancia que nos deshumanizan.

La autodeterminación

Core Bioethical Principles

Moral Progress and Scientific Advancement

There is no possible scientific progress without moral progress too.

The Unity of the Human Person

Each human being is a biological, spiritual, and moral unity. What truly differentiates persons from other living beings is our capacity to behave morally.

Primacy of Human Life

The Belmont Report outlines general bioethical principles. A key principle is the primacy of present and real human life above any other interest or value. This also implies the respect for human dignity.

Understanding Human Dignity

The origin and foundation of the duty of absolute respect for human life are to be found in the dignity proper to the person, and not simply in the natural inclination to preserve... Continue reading "Bioethical Foundations: Human Life, Dignity, and Legal Status" »

Anthropological Ideas of the Holy Fathers (Platonism) - Until the 13th Century

These ideas persisted until the 13th century due to:

• The idea that the soul is in the body due to a fall (original sin)
• The idea that the soul, in the body, is subjected to superior and inferior tendencies (battle between the flesh and the spirit)
• Immortality of the soul

Saint Thomas Aquinas (Aristotelian Standpoint)

• The soul is the form of the body.
• The soul does not pre-exist the body; it is created by God at the same time it in-forms the body.
• No transmigration.
• Immortal soul.

Descartes (Plato's Standpoint - Efficient Causality)

Descartes' views aligned with Plato's because:

• He rejects the concept of substantial forms.
• He considers the soul to be a thinking and self-sufficient

Question 1: Greatness of the Soul

Aristotle's Perspective

Aristotle defines greatness of the soul as moral perfection, encompassing virtues like courage, temperance, wisdom, generosity, strength, and justice. He believes that a virtuous person, incapable of pride, would sacrifice their assets for honor. Achieving greatness of the soul, for Aristotle, is the ultimate path to happiness.

Conflicting Views: Augustine and Hobbes

St. Augustine disagrees, arguing that Aristotle's view promotes self-glory rather than adherence to God's word. Augustine emphasizes the cardinal virtues but stresses the importance of praising God for salvation. Hobbes also diverges from Aristotle, asserting that happiness is not an end in itself but a means to another... Continue reading "Aristotle vs. Aquinas & Hobbes: Views on Virtue, Happiness, and the Soul" »

Ethics as a Whole: A Moral Reasoning: Formula

Moral principle + Action = Moral value. Applying a moral principle to an action we are able to come up with moral evolution Issues. There can be 3 problems with moral reasoning: 1. Consistency 2. Lack of facts 3. Sources of moral principles. Moral principle= Killing innocent people is evil. Action= Billy killed an innocent person. Value= Billy is an evil person. Objective — Universal— Always time. Subjective — Particular—Time-Space. Moral Relativism General Characteristic — The belief that moral principles are values created by each culture's customs and conventions. No objective moral values. Moral relativism can lack consistency as it can be based on your opinion and change with every... Continue reading "Understanding Moral Reasoning and Ethical Principles" »