Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Descartes' Analysis of Ideas

In this text, Descartes presents his analysis of ideas. First, Descartes states that our ideas, considered as immanent content (internal content) of our mind, cannot be considered false. Then, after recognizing that we can only be wrong when we make judgments, he says that it is a very common mistake to assume that our ideas refer to external entities; otherwise, we would never be wrong. Finally, Descartes concludes by explaining his distinction between the three types of ideas: innate, fictitious, and adventitious.

Locke's Critique of Cartesian Innatism

In this text, John Locke presents his critique of Cartesian innatism. First, Locke states that the goal of this text is to refute the widespread belief in the existence... Continue reading "Philosophical Concepts: Ideas, Experience, Ethics, Reason" »

Elenchus (Socratic Method):

a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals, based on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and underlying presuppositions.

Philosophy:

An attitude of critical thoughtfulness concerning highly fundamental and general beliefs

Deductive Argument:

Attempts to show that a conclusion necessarily follows the premises

Validity vs. Soundness:

Validity is a deductive argument which the conclusion cannot be false if the premises are true, whereas soundness combines both validity and true premises

Inductive Argument:

Attempts to provide reasons for the truth of the conclusion, the conclusion states more than what is contained in the premises, universal conclusion.

Glaucon’s

Cultural Relativism: A Critique

One can only be judged by the standards and morals of their culture because morality is determined by each culture. You can't judge any culture outside of your own because you don’t understand why they believe what they believe. However, if enough people are part of that culture and believe that what they are doing is good, then there must be some truth in that.

If cultural relativism was universally supported and believed to be true, then there shouldn’t be any international governing bodies such as the United Nations or the European Parliament. This is because, under cultural relativism, you should be accepting that each culture has its own opinion on what is good and bad, and from an outside perspective,... Continue reading "Cultural Relativism vs. Universal Morality: Exploring Ethical Frameworks" »

It is claimed that money is the only thing that motivates entrepreneurs

I can clearly say that entrepreneurs have different types of motivations. Some of them are related to the desire to earn money and others with the illusion of turning your dream into reality.

At present, the development of new companies has become very fashionable. With this, many entrepreneurs dream of becoming the next millionaire genius like Mark Zuckerberg. They also dream of traveling by private jet, partying in Las Vegas and having a Ferrari.

Although money is a great motivator and is very necessary to boost entrepreneurs, recent research concludes that people who only seek to earn money have a personality more prone to individualism, lack of willingness to work in teams... Continue reading "Motivations of Entrepreneurs: Beyond Money" »

Analyze: To study something in detail 

Immanuel Kant: "Doing What You Ought"

Highest Principle: Justice

Kant's highest principle is justice, emphasizing respect for individual rights. Moral rules can be broken, even if it makes people happy.

The Importance of Motive

Only the motive matters. The only morally good motive is the motive of duty, doing the right thing because it is right.

Acting Freely

When we satisfy our appetites, we are not acting freely because we are driven by the laws of our biology. We act freely in accordance with moral law, which is reason.

The Categorical Imperative

The moral law tells us what our duty is through the categorical imperative, an unconditional moral obligation that is binding in all circumstances and is not dependent on a person's inclination or purpose.... Continue reading "Immanuel Kant's Moral Philosophy: Duty and Ethics" »

Key Figures in Rationalist Philosophy

1. Who are the Three Great Rationalists?

1. Descartes, Plato, and Spinoza
2. Descartes, Leibniz, and Spinoza
3. Descartes, Leibniz, and Locke

Answer: B. Descartes, Leibniz, and Spinoza. Their philosophy emphasizes the importance of innate reasoning abilities in acquiring knowledge.

2. What is Saint Augustine's "Confessions" About?

1. Life
2. Religion
3. Nature of Time

Answer: C. Nature of time. He famously stated: "If no one asks me what time is, I know; if they ask and I try to explain, I do not know."

3. From Which Community was Spinoza Expelled?

1. Christian community
2. Jewish community
3. Muslim community

Answer: B. Jewish community. He was expelled due to his philosophical views, which were considered heretical.

4. How did St. Augustine Fuse

U11: Count on

to be confident that you can depend on someone. Fall out: to argue with someone and stop being friendly with them. Finish with: to end a romantic relationship with someone. go off: to stop linking or being interested in someone or something. Hit it off: people hit it off, they like each other and become friendly immediately. let down: to disappoint someone by failing to do what you agreed to do or were expected to do. look down on: to think that you are better than someone. look up to: to admire and respect someone. stick together: people stick together, they support and help each other. take after: to be similar to an older member of you family in appearance or character. Compound adjectives: Badly behaved: behaving in a way that... Continue reading "English Phrasal Verbs and Compound Adjectives" »