Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

What was life like for children among the Puritans?

What was expected of them and what kinds of things were they banned from doing? How were they disciplined for misbehavior?

They had to follow the same strict code as adults, such as doing chores, attending church services, and repressing individual differences. They weren’t allowed to show any form of emotion and stay ignorant. The punishment would be physical, such as whipping.

What factors contributed to the instability of life in Salem Village?

Salem is a community on the outskirts (in the wilderness), just hanging on. Woods could conceal Indians or the Devil himself. Their charter was revoked, rigid religious practices, belief in predestination, misogyny, gossip, land disputes, and resentment... Continue reading "Puritans, Salem, and the New World: Beliefs and Conflicts" »

What If Everyone Did It? (Immanuel Kant)

• If you help because it hurts you, it is not a moral action.
• Morality depends on what you do and why you do it.
• You should never lie.
• We all have an absolute duty to tell the truth → Categorical imperative (order).
• We act on the basis of “maxims”. For something to be moral, it must be applicable to everyone (maxims applicable in all cases).
• Always ask yourself the question of what if everyone did it?

Such Practice (Jeremy Bentham)

• Panopticon (a machine to make rogues honest).
• Utilitarianism or the Principle of Greatest Happiness → It consists of the idea that what is correct is what produces the greatest happiness.
• Happiness is pleasure and absence of pain. We seek pleasurable experiences and avoid painful

Relevance and Reliability in Accounting Information

To be useful, information needs to be relevant and reliable. Relevance and reliability are of crucial importance, but, unfortunately, they are not always compatible. Hence, we have to trade-off between them.

Accounting information is relevant when it is provided in time, but at early stages information is uncertain and hence less reliable. If we wait while the information gains reliability, its relevance is lost. After the balance sheet date, during the time when an audit is carried out, it becomes clear which debts were realized and which were not, hence it improves the reliability of the bad debts estimate, but the information loses its relevance due to too much time being taken. Timeliness... Continue reading "Relevance, Reliability, and Information Asymmetry in Accounting" »

Romanticism's Core Themes

Romanticism, a philosophical and artistic movement, profoundly influenced science, politics, and literature. It emphasized several key themes:

• Autobiographical Tendency: Exploring the self, often through introspection and a search for identity.
• Existentialism: Questioning existence, purpose, and the meaning of life ('Who am I?').
• Search for Identity: A deep dive into personal origins and the essence of being.
• Nature as Inspiration: Finding divine inspiration and artistic motivation in the natural world.
• Narcissistic Ego: A focus on the individual's perspective and experiences.
• Break with the Past: Rejecting traditional norms and embracing new ways of thinking.
• Political Animals: Recognizing the inherent political nature of

 He had just stood there, not really trying to save himself, just stood there, joking, needling, thought Montag, and the thought was enough to stifle his sobbing and let him pause for air." Instantly, the reader and Montag understand Beatty in a much different light. Montag suddenly sees that, although he always assumed that all firemen were happy, he has no right to make this assumption any longer. Although Beatty seemed the most severe critic of books, he, in fact, thought that outlawing individual thinking and putting a premium on conformity stifled a society. Beatty was a man who understood his own compromised morality and who privately admired the conviction of people like Montag.

In a strange way, Beatty wanted to commit suicide but was... Continue reading "The Complexities of Beatty and the Social Malaise in Fahrenheit 451" »

Bertrand Russell: The King of France Paradox

• Russell's philosophical inquiries often explored the limits of language and logic.
• He posited that certain statements, like "God cannot save humanity. He does not exist," reflect a particular stance on metaphysical claims.
• Russell also considered situations where "fighting is the best possible option" under exceptional circumstances.
• A paradox is a statement that appears to be true and false at the same time.
• The famous proposition, "The current King of France is bald," is considered false because there is no King of France today. This illustrates Russell's theory of definite descriptions and the problem of non-referring terms in logic.

A.J. Ayer: Verificationism and Emotivism

• A.J. Ayer, a prominent logical

Incarcerate

To imprison, confine, jail

Indulgent

Lenient, characterized by excess generosity; overly tolerant

Illicit

Forbidden by law; improper; unauthorized

Inundate

To cover by overflowing; to flood; to overwhelm (as if by a flood)

Inscrutable

Mysterious or obscure; hard to grasp; not easily understood

Intercede

To plead, or petition, on another's behalf

Irrevocable

Not capable of being retracted, recalled, or withdrawn; unalterable

Impair

To make worse; to damage or weaken

Incorrigible

Incapable of being reformed or improved; very bad

Impassive

Having, or revealing, no emotion; Still or motionless

Ludicrous

Ridiculous, laughable, absurd

Litigation

A legal proceeding in a court; a judicial contest to determine and enforce legal rights

Magnanimous

Generous in overlooking... Continue reading "Vocabulary Enrichment: Essential Words for Effective Communication" »

Vicarious Liability in Employment Law

Key Conditions for Employment (Mackenna J)

Mackenna J outlined three conditions for a contract of employment:

1. The employee agrees to provide their work and skills to the employer in return for a wage.
2. The employee agrees, expressly or impliedly, to be directed as to the mode of performance.
3. The terms of the contract are consistent with a contract of employment.

Atkin's Approach to Employment

Courts may be prepared to find a relationship akin to employment if it is just, fair, and reasonable to impose vicarious liability as a whole.

Case Example: In JGE v Portsmouth, a judge ruled that a Bishop in the Roman Catholic Church was vicariously liable for sexual abuse committed by a priest.

Cases on Vicarious Liability

Various

Lack of Internal Democracy in Indian Political Parties

The lack of internal democracy within political parties in India is a significant concern, stemming from several key reasons:

• Concentration of Power: There is a strong tendency in political parties towards the concentration of power in one or a few leaders at the top.
• Irregular Internal Processes: Parties often do not hold regular organizational meetings or conduct internal elections consistently.
• Limited Member Influence: Many members lack the necessary means or connections to significantly influence party decisions.
• Absence of Membership Registers: Parties frequently do not maintain proper membership registers, making internal accountability difficult.

These characteristics are observable in... Continue reading "Indian Political Parties: Internal Democracy & Global Systems" »