Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Initial Phase: War of Movement (1914)

The early phase of the war in 1914 involved rapid movements before trench lines solidified. Key early battles included:

• Battle of Tannenberg

  A significant German victory against Russia.

• Battle of the Marne

  A crucial Allied (French and British) victory that halted the German advance towards Paris.

Trench Warfare: War of Positions (1915-1917)

From 1915 to 1917, the war became characterized by static, bloody trench warfare. Vast trench systems were established, leading to brutal battles of attrition with little territorial gain.

• Battle of Verdun (1916)

  A lengthy and costly battle, often considered a French strategic victory despite immense casualties on both sides.

• Battle of the Somme (1916)

  An Allied offensive marked

The Russian Revolution

In October 1917, the first worker and peasant revolution in history triumphed in Russia. The early Russian discourse on revolution was shaped by the largest empire in the world, where feudalism still held sway. The Tsar had absolute power, and most of the population were peasants whose lands were owned by large landowners.

Causes of the Revolution

• Demand for citizenship rights and freedoms
• Poverty of the peasantry and the proletariat
• Russia's participation in World War I: defeat of the Central Empires, rising prices, and shortages of essential goods
• Poor people's participation in the Duma
• Constitutional issues with a few liberal reforms

Revolution of 1917

In February 1917, peasants, workers, and soldiers staged a revolution... Continue reading "The Impact of the Russian Revolution on Modern History" »

**The October Revolution of 1917**

The Days of October

Kerensky sought to carry out the conversion of the Tsarist state into a parliamentary republic. For that purpose, a meeting of the board called the Republic was held to take over the situation until the opening of a new assembly. Trotsky became the center of opposition to the Republican regime. On October 25th, the sea rose following Lenin's call. Soon, groups of armed workers joined and managed to take key locations.

The Construction of the Soviet State

The revolution was finally consummated by the rapid action of the armed masses and the support of the Soviets, Bolsheviks, and Mensheviks. Lenin then became the undisputed leader, although within the Bolshevik Party, problems persisted on the... Continue reading "October Revolution 1917: Bolsheviks Seize Power in Russia" »

Key Points of the Spanish Restoration Crisis

• The Crisis of 1898 highlighted the weakness of the Restoration system. In this context, Regenerationism emerged, a school of thought that attempted to reform the system from within.
• Opposition expanded its popular base. The labor movement and Republicans opposed the monarchy, while regionalism evolved into demands for autonomy.
• The dynastic parties entered a process of decline. The system's inability to renew itself led to the Crisis of 1917, paving the way for the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera.
• The King's support of the dictatorship ultimately discredited the monarchy.

Keywords of the Era

• Speculation: Buying and selling goods with the sole purpose of profiting from market price fluctuations, without

Africa's 19th Century Partition by European Powers

Africa in the nineteenth century became a focal point for European colonizing powers. In 1880, it was a continent largely unknown to Europeans, who occupied only a series of coastal positions. By 1914, however, Africa was almost completely partitioned among these European nations.

Mediterranean Coast: French & British Rivalry

The Mediterranean coast was initially considered an area reserved for France until the emergence of British interests at Suez.

French Dominance: Algeria and Tunisia

The French initiated the occupation of the Algerian coast and subsequently succeeded in establishing a protectorate in Tunisia.

British Control: Egypt & Suez Canal

The United Kingdom declared its protectorate... Continue reading "Africa's 19th Century Partition: European Colonization" »

Romanesque Architecture: A Historical Context

Romanesque art developed in the Christian West between the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries. Three related historical processes occurred simultaneously in Europe:

• Terror in the Year 1000: The 11th century was lived in a climate of anxiety about Muslim, Norman, and Hungarian invasions, which was interpreted as a sign of the end of the world.
• Pilgrimages: The importance of some monasteries, and the fact that they housed relics of saints, made them centers of pilgrimage from the 10th century onward. Santiago became prominent after the discovery of the tomb of the Apostle.

Romanesque Architecture: The Roman Church

The most representative buildings are pilgrimage churches. The plan is a longitudinal Latin cross,... Continue reading "Romanesque Architecture: History and Characteristics" »

The French Revolution

Causes of the French Revolution

Economic Reasons:

• Financial crisis caused by the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) and aid to English settlers in the U.S. independence.
• Bad harvests (1788 and 1789) raised the price of bread, leading to riots among less advantaged groups.
• Great State expenditures (luxury of the Court, army officials...) as were forced to pay tribute the privileged (nobility and clergy).

Social Causes:

• The nobility opposed economic reforms that required them to pay taxes, causing their failure.
• The bourgeoisie wanted to seize political power from the nobility and used the popular classes to do so.

Political and Ideological Causes:

• The ideas of the Enlightenment provided the ideological basis (national sovereignty, separation

Fascist Italy

Fascism emerged in Italy after World War I. Along with German Nazism, it was the most prominent unparliamentary ideology of the interwar period. Fascist ideology had several characteristics:

• It defended the establishment of a totalitarian state.
• It supported a dictatorial one-party political system.
• It was radically anti-capitalist and anti-communist.
• It maintained an aggressive, expansionist, and militaristic nationalism.
• Racists and fascists considered non-whites inferior.
• It descended into violence against political opponents.
• It exalted masculine principles.

Italy felt cheated after World War I. A moral crisis joined a grave economic, political, and social situation. Benito Mussolini created the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento, known... Continue reading "Fascist Italy: Mussolini, Hitler, and Roosevelt" »

Causes of the French Revolution

The French Revolution was triggered by several factors:

• Economic Issues: High economic benefits were not reaching the common people. Rules interfered with free trade and production. The inability to attain political power and the influence of Enlightenment ideas also played a role.
• Severe Economic Crisis: Poor harvests led to rising agricultural prices and widespread hunger, causing discomfort among the population. Royal finances were in bankruptcy.
• Estates-General Crisis: The nobility refused to pay taxes, leading to a political crisis. The voting system within the Estates-General, where each estate had one vote, was perceived as unfair by the Third Estate.

Key Events of the Revolution

Formation of the National Assembly

The... Continue reading "French Revolution: Causes, Events, and Key Figures" »

Problems of the Spanish Restoration

The turnantes governments demonstrated their inefficiency and inability to cope with domestic problems. Inertia and the desire to avoid any change that would endanger the political and economic interests of dominant social groups characterized the actions of both the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party. The governments did not substantially transform the political system to solve growing problems. Some problems that threatened the continuity of the Restoration were:

• The Moroccan Problem: The Spanish army suffered several major setbacks in Morocco.
• The Regional Problem: In reaction to political centralism, nationalism emerged in Catalonia, the Basque Country, Galicia, and Valencia, but the government ignored