Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

Fascism in Europe

Europe suffered a series of events that were experienced as catastrophic social upheavals and economic depressions. The nineteenth-century liberal system was accused of being the cause, and values of reason and progress had lost credibility. During the 20s and 30s, political and social movements became authoritarian, demanding the demise of the liberal regime, as well as the imposition of the state over the masses. The most representative examples of fascism were Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany.

Common Traits of Fascism

They shared the bourgeois rejection, contempt of liberal politics, rejecting parliamentary democracy, the harsh repression of Marxism, a strong nationalism, xenophobia and racism, and the tendency to rely... Continue reading "Understanding Fascism: Italy and Germany" »

Alfonso XII of Spain (1857-1885)

Alfonso XII of Spain (born in Madrid, 1857 - died in El Pardo, 1885) was King of Spain from 1875 to 1885. The reign of Alfonso XII marked the return of the House of Bourbon to Spain shortly after the interruption that began in 1868, which included the reign of Amadeus of Savoy and the First Spanish Republic. With the fall of the monarchy of King Amadeus I of the House of Savoy, and the First Republic, a document was signed stating that a parliamentary monarchy would ascend to the throne (1874). The following year, Alfonso arrived in Madrid and was crowned king. During his brief reign, three main lines of action were pursued:

• Ending the conflict between Carlism and Isabelism: The Third Carlist War ended, and Alfonso

Totalitarianism: Causes, Features, and Examples

Causes and Social Supports

Causes: The rise of totalitarianism was often emphasized by the existence of a weak democratic system, severe economic crises, social polarization between revolutionary groups, and the formation of ultra groups. Germany felt humiliated after World War I, and Italy felt it had received few rewards for its participation.

Social Support: Totalitarian regimes often found support among the middle class, big business, veterans, the unemployed, and other malcontent social sectors.

Totalitarian System Features

Authoritarian Political System

The state concentrates power and exercises it through a single leader (e.g., Hitler), demanding absolute obedience. There are no freedoms, no... Continue reading "Totalitarianism: Causes, Features, and Historical Examples" »

It will absorb local artistic traditions. These traditions are: Hispanic Art, Roman (Roman classical), Paleochristian Art, and the influence of Islam, Visigothic, and East.

In the 10th century, with the Caliphate of Cordoba, Hispano-Muslim art buildings were built that marked the climax, making it the classical period of Islamic art. From this time on, it became a benchmark for all future stages, until the 15th century, with Nasrid survivals.

Another influence is from the North of Africa, both in the Umayyad period and Taifa. From the 11th century until the 13th century, it will become part of the Empire.

Christian influence: They coexisted with Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula. The boundaries are blurred in cultural and artistic exchanges (the... Continue reading "Umayyad Art in Al-Andalus: Religious Architecture" »

Key Terms: French Revolution and Ancien Régime

Establishment: Responding to social divisions' own criteria. Feud, Ant, and the estates are closed groups, normally entered by circumstances of birth, as opposed to social classes that were defined by common interests.

Third Estate: One of the three estates of society's own feud. It consists of people who do not have the same privileges as the clergy and the nobility. Inside the Third Estate was the bourgeoisie.

Ancien Régime: A set of rules, social structures, and forms of government and property that existed in Europe until the liberal revolutions started in the late 18th century. A French expression used to describe the company they wanted to change.

Enlightenment: A cultural, political, and... Continue reading "Key Terms of the French Revolution and Ancien Régime" »

Constitution of 1845

The Constitution of 1845 expressed conservatism and designed a very conservative, oligarchic model. It gave great power to the King, who controlled one chamber, the Senate, appointed directly by the monarch. It denied national sovereignty and established a state church, with the Catholic religion as the state religion.

Constitution of 1869

The Constitution of 1869 was the most democratic constitution of nineteenth-century Spanish liberalism, resulting from the September Revolution of 1868. It established a constitutional monarchy with full recognition of national sovereignty, concretized in a bicameral system (Congress and Senate) and an extensive bill of rights. It introduced universal male suffrage and freedom of religion.... Continue reading "Key Moments in 19th-Century Spanish Political History" »

Spain's Moderate Era: Church, State, and Reform

The moderate government sought to improve relations with the Church. It signed a concordat with the Holy See, which provided for the suspension of the sale of disentailed church property and the return of vendidos. The Holy See recognized Elizabeth II and accepted the disentailment, while the state committed to supporting the Spanish Church, regular orders, and the recognition of Catholicism as the official religion of the country.

Consolidating the Liberal State

Moderantismo aimed to consolidate the structure of the new liberal state under the principles of centralism, hierarchy, and uniformity. Additionally, the government approved the Criminal Code, drafted the Civil Code, reformed public administration,... Continue reading "Spain's Moderates: Church Relations, Reforms, and Political Shifts" »

The Radicalization of Left Parties

This led to the radicalization of the left parties.

The Riots of 1934

In 1934, there was a government reshuffle that gave input to ministers of CEDA. This caused the outbreak of riots throughout Spain. In Catalonia, the situation was quite different because the general government was in the hands of a leftist coalition that did not view the process initiated by the Lerroux government favorably. A first confrontation occurred when the courts in Madrid had to cancel the Contract Law of the crop. The decisive confrontation took place in October 1934 when President Companys led a revolt and proclaimed the Catalan State within the Spanish Republic. In Asturias, the revolt had a more social character.

Popular Front

Novel Renaissance: New and Old Genres

Pastoral

Pastoral novels feature pastors and characters who are always involved in love affairs and set in an idealized place.

Byzantine

Byzantine novels star characters who are lovers that go through many difficulties, such as penalties and separations, but are finally reunited with a happy ending.

Picaresque

Picaresque novels star a rogue who must contrive to survive.

Cavalry

Cavalry novels had still grown in the revival, but they fell out of fashion because the public began to weary of their feats.

Sentimental

Sentimental novels look like pastoral novels, but the characters are too tearful, and people do not believe them and get tired of them.

The Picaresque Novel

The Picaresque novel appeared in 1554 with the publication... Continue reading "Novel Genres and Literary Analysis: From Pastoral to Picaresque" »

The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)

The Liberal Triennium was a period of three years in Spanish history, from 1820 to 1823, when a liberal government ruled Spain after a military uprising by Lieutenant Colonel Rafael del Riego against the absolutist rule of Ferdinand VII.

Key Figures and Events

• Rafael del Riego: Lieutenant Colonel stationed at the head of St. John with an army that was to be shipped to quell the revolt of the American colonies. He proclaimed the Constitution of Cadiz and reinstated constitutional municipal authorities. He became the main instigator of the ruling Liberal Triennium. Riego visited several Andalusian towns without much support, but despite this, he joined the ruling cities.
• Conde de la Bisbal: The Earl who led the charge