Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Agrarian Reform

The Agrarian Reform was initially applied in 1932 to the estates of southern Spain. It was later extended to the whole country. Small and medium landowners strongly opposed the reforms, which were implemented very slowly. The central government reform was not satisfactory for anyone.

Labor Reforms

These reforms were the work of Largo Caballero. They created a new framework for relations between employers and workers and established a labor law for the agricultural sector. The main measures were:

• The Law of Labor Contracts
• The Law of Mixed Juries
• The Law of Municipal Terms
• The Law of Compulsory Tillage
• The Law of Accidents in the Field
• The imposition of an eight-hour workday in agriculture

Other reforms, such as the Worker Intervention... Continue reading "Agrarian, Labor, Military, Religious, and Educational Reforms in Spain" »

The Birth of the USSR

The New Regime: First Steps

The Council of People's Commissars issued a series of decrees aimed to satisfy the main demands of the masses and win their accession. These included:

• The decree on the end of the war proposed a peace without annexations or indemnities.
• The decree on land expropriated land without agricultural contracts.
• The decree on industrial factories put under the control of workers and employees.
• The decree on the nationalities declared the right of peoples to freely dispose of Russia.

In January 1918, the Constituent Assembly met. Soviet power and the dictatorship of the proletariat would become the pillars of Bolshevik Russia. Gradually, the opposition was silenced. In July 1918, the Congress of Soviets adopted... Continue reading "USSR Birth & 1929 Stock Market Crash: Key Events" »

Consequences of Colonization

Colonization brought about significant transformations, both economic and social, with lasting impacts on the colonized regions and the colonizing powers.

Economic Transformations

• Construction of infrastructure such as ports, roads, and railroads.
• Cultivation of land and creation of new industries that primarily benefited the colonizers.
• Introduction of industrial products, which often ruined local crafts and industries in the colonies.
• Imposition of a monetary and market economy, replacing traditional subsistence practices. Indigenous people were often forced to work and cultivate land for the colonizers' benefit rather than solely for their own livelihood.
• Large plantations, for crops like cocoa and coffee, were significantly

Prelude to Conflict

In 1898, Spain and the U.S. started a war for control of Cuba. It was a short war due to American superiority, but it had serious repercussions for Spain's dwindling empire. This crisis favored the emergence of cultural movements that criticized the Restoration period and sought political regeneration.

Cuban War of Independence

Cuba had been a Spanish possession since its discovery by Christopher Columbus. For Spain, it was the "pearl of the Antilles" due to its natural resources and strategic position. From the 19th century, it became the largest producer of sugar.

In the mid-19th century, changes occurred driven by the Creole aristocracy, as the profitability of slavery and the sugar monopoly declined, alongside issues with... Continue reading "Spain's 1898 Crisis: Cuban Independence & U.S. War" »

The Cold War: Defining a Post-World War II Era

The Cold War refers to a period of continuous geopolitical tension that emerged after the Second World War. Its defining characteristics include:

• Confrontation between Two Superpowers: Initially, the United States and the Soviet Union.
• Global Expansion: By the 1950s, the conflict extended to global proportions, forming two opposing blocs led by these superpowers.
• Strategies of Harassment: Both sides employed continuous strategies of harassment against the opposing bloc.
• Psychological Warfare: The conflict profoundly altered the collective psyche of people worldwide, who lived in constant fear of nuclear war.

Key Policies and Doctrines of the Cold War

The Truman Doctrine: A Policy of Containment

In 1946,... Continue reading "Cold War History: Superpower Confrontation and Soviet Collapse" »

Family Policies and Power Dynamics in Franco's Spain

Within a complete subordination to the Leader, there were different families or groups with different political sensitivity, never parties, as in the Franco regime political parties were banned. Falange was only allowed, but defining it as a party was banned so that became known as the National Movement. Each family tried to influence the decisions of Franco, and the ability of this was to entrust parcels to conveniently measures, supported successively one family or another as appropriate at all times, moving from the foreground to those made uncomfortable by some internal or external reason and thus ensured their presence in power unchallenged. When a scandal broke out in some way be attributed... Continue reading "Franco's Spain: Family Policies and Power Dynamics" »

1. Discuss the Origins of the Cold War

Why did the US and the Soviet Union disagree so drastically on the formulation of the postwar world from 1945-1950? What were some of the main issues that divided the world into “two camps?”

The Cold War lasted from 1946, following the collapse of the anti-Hitler coalition and the establishment of an exclusive zone of Soviet influence in Central Europe, to the disintegration of the Soviet satellite states in 1989 and the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991.

Throughout this period, the confrontation between the two superpowers was fought on multiple fronts: military, ideological, psychological, and economic. The most important element was a technological arms race, including the reinforcement and... Continue reading "Cold War Origins: US-Soviet Tensions 1945-1950" »

The Nationalist Zone: Establishing a New Order

Upon the death of General Sanjurjo, there was no clear leadership. A general meeting created the Board of National Defense, which served as an interim government. They immediately established a state of war, abolished freedoms, and dissolved all political parties except the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS (Falange). Propaganda justified the military insurrection as a National Uprising against a "Marxist and anti-Spanish Republic," framing the war as "a crusade to rid Spain of atheism."

Economic reforms were implemented to cancel Republican reforms. The Servicio Nacional del Trigo (National Wheat Service) was also created to control wheat distribution and provide bread to the people.... Continue reading "Spanish Civil War: Political and Social Dynamics of Nationalist and Republican Factions" »

The Partition of Africa: 1914 Map and Imperialism

This map corresponds to the partition of Africa in 1914. We know that this map belongs to Africa because, in 1914, the continent was divided among various European countries, with the notable exceptions of Ethiopia and Liberia.

As a result of imperialism, Africa was divided into colonies, which in turn were distributed among the various European states. Imperialism is a historical phenomenon that intensified around 1870, driven by the political and economic relations between nations.

The Berlin Conference (1884)

Due to the conflicts between European powers seeking to acquire the largest number of territories, the Conference of Berlin was convened in late 1884. This conference resulted in a new map... Continue reading "The Scramble for Africa: Imperialism and the 1914 Partition" »

The post-war period saw the emergence of a black market, operating outside the official Catholic legal framework that influenced much of the regime's early policies.

Post-1945 Francoist Spain: Reforms & Opposition

The 1945 Political Shift in Francoist Spain

In 1945, the government replaced Falangist ministers with Catholics and introduced policies aimed at greater openness to the outside world. This period saw the enactment of several fundamental laws:

Franco's Fundamental Laws and Succession

Key Legislation and Referendum Process

• The Charter of Spaniards: Promulgated as a declaration of rights and duties.
• The National Referendum Act: Established a procedure for popular ratification of legal texts considered transcendental. However, this procedure