Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

History Examination Material

Key Figures and Concepts

Johann Gutenberg

A German inventor who created the printing press with movable type in the 1400s. This invention enabled the mass printing of large texts. It significantly aided the spread of the Reformation, as Bibles and documents containing Reformation ideas could be printed rather than laboriously hand-written.

Hegira

The journey that the Prophet Mohammed and his followers took from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE. In Medina, people embraced his ideas, and the first Muslim community formed. Therefore, the Hegira marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar.

Mercantilism

An economic theory focused on generating wealth and profit through trade and commercialism. It gained popularity in Europe following... Continue reading "Key Historical Figures and Events Review" »

Reasons for the Emergence of the Cold War (1947-1991)

Root Causes

Revanchism and depression marked the society of the interwar period. The sanctions of the Treaty of Versailles and the consequences of the crash of 1929 favored the rise of dictatorships and the failure of democracies. Thus, certain foreign policies (Italy, Germany, and Japan) became radicalized by claiming their living space, international prestige, and improvement of the economy. This contrasted with the pacifist work of Pius XII that would not have an effect.

In a bid to achieve them, they opted for militarization. The economy would boost the arms industry, with the main powers responding poorly:

1. The United States of America would stay out.

2. The USSR would mistrust the West.

3. France would trust the British.

4. The United Kingdom would propose

The Urban Society

Bourgeoisie: a new social group emerged in these cities. They were not tied to a lord or participated in the feudal relations. They were merchants and bankers, and quickly became the richest citizens.

• There was also a poorer population: servants, laborers, beggars, or fugitive serfs who did the hard work.
• Many towns had a Jewish population who lived in Jewish quarters or ghettos.
• There were also Moorish quarters, where the Muslims lived.

The Economy of a Medieval City

Trade: the most important function of a city. Usually, the cities celebrated fairs, where people from other cities came to sell their products.

• Currency: in the Early Middle Ages, the Roman currency was replaced by bartering. But now, we can see gold coins again working

Early Discoveries and Settlements

• Leif Ericson led Vikings around 1000 AD.
• Christopher Columbus, an Italian mariner, arrived in 1492.

Spanish Colonization

• St. Augustine, Florida: Established by the Spanish in 1565.
• Santa Fe, New Mexico: Established in 1609.
• San Diego, California: Established in 1769.

English Colonies and Early Economy

• The first permanent English colony was Jamestown, Virginia, founded in 1607.
• Tobacco Economy: Making money by growing tobacco, which began shipping to England in 1614.
• A larger Puritan colony (a religious group that came to New England) was established in Boston in 1630.
• Roger Williams: Disagreed with the union of Church and State and founded the colony of Rhode Island in 1635.

Immigration and Demographics

• German farmers came

Global Economic Imbalances

The United States benefitted hugely from the First World War. None of its land had been destroyed, its human losses were relatively small, and sales of food, weapons, and industrial products to the allies had benefitted it enormously. By the time the war ended, the United States had become the world's leading economic power. Its agricultural production was very high, and its industrial production represented 44.8% of global production. Its higher level of competitiveness opened up international markets to its products, which invaded the global markets that had previously been dominated by European industries. In addition, many European countries were indebted to the United States as a result of the war loans.

In contrast... Continue reading "Global Economic Imbalances: The Impact of World War I and the Great Depression" »

Gandhi's Intervention in Champaran: A Victory for Indigo Sharecroppers

The Plight of Indigo Sharecroppers

Indigo sharecroppers in Champaran faced severe exploitation under the British colonial system. They were forced to cultivate indigo on a significant portion of their land and surrender the entire harvest as rent, leading to perpetual debt and hardship.

Gandhi's Arrival and Investigation

Rajkumar Shukla, a determined peasant, sought Mahatma Gandhi's help to address the grievances of the sharecroppers. Gandhi, moved by their plight, traveled to Champaran and conducted a thorough investigation, exposing the injustices faced by the farmers.

Civil Disobedience and Negotiation

Gandhi employed his philosophy of Satyagraha, advocating for nonviolent... Continue reading "Gandhi's Triumph in Champaran: A Turning Point in India's Freedom Struggle" »

Spanish Conquest of Mexico

Early Contact with Moctezuma

Juan de Grijalva sailed from Santiago, Cuba, in April 1518, following the route established by Francisco Hernández de Córdoba. Córdoba had discovered the Yucatán Peninsula and returned with enough wealth to encourage another venture. Grijalva reached the limits of Moctezuma’s empire, obtaining gold from Aztec merchants and meeting Pinotl, an Aztec official. Pinotl delivered news of the Spaniards to Tenochtitlan. When Moctezuma heard the Spanish might soon arrive, he grew concerned, believing they might be associated with the return of the god Quetzalcoatl.

Cortés and the Quetzalcoatl Myth

The third Spanish expedition to Mexico was led by Hernán Cortés in 1519. He founded the town... Continue reading "Hernán Cortés and the Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire" »

The Manchurian Crisis

Japan's Characteristics in the 1920s

In the 1920s, Japan possessed:

• A very powerful army and navy.
• A strong industry.
• Significant exports of goods to the USA and China.
• A growing empire, including the Korean Peninsula.

Impact of the Depression on Japan

The Great Depression had significant consequences for Japan:

• Both China and the USA imposed tariffs against Japanese goods.
• The Japanese economy entered a crisis.
• Without trade, Japan couldn't feed its people.

Reasons for Invading Manchuria

An incident in Manchuria provided Japan with an opportunity to expand its territory and influence.

Japan's Actions in Manchuria

Japan already controlled the South Manchurian Railway. When Chinese soldiers allegedly invaded it, Japanese forces overran... Continue reading "The Manchurian Crisis and the Failure of 1930s Disarmament" »

The Decline and Partial Restoration of the Fueros (1839-1868)

Under General Espartero, a new decree (1841) was issued for the 3 Basque provinces: General Juntas and Councils were abolished, civil governors would be appointed to the Basque provinces from Madrid, tolls were changed to the seaports, and tax exemption and exemption from conscription and civil law were maintained.

Another new law was issued for Navarre called Ley Paccionada (16 Aug 1841). Through this law, Navarre ceased to be a kingdom and became a province, the old Cortes of Navarre and the tax exemption were abolished, Navarre lost its legislative power, and tolls were set up on the Pyrenees border with France. The province could still raise taxes, and a fixed amount, a quota,... Continue reading "The Fueros and the Carlist Wars: A History of Basque Politics in the 19th Century" »