Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

The Middle East Conflict and Cold War Context

The proclamation of the State of Israel in 1948 led to the first war with Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon, who did not accept the existence of Israel at the expense of Palestine. This period saw the founding of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).

Key Arab-Israeli Wars

The Second Arab-Israeli War (1956) occurred during the Suez Crisis, following an Israeli attack on Egypt. The Third Arab-Israeli War (1967), known as the Six-Day War, involved Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. Israel responded rapidly with its troops under the command of Moshe Dayan. The Fourth Arab-Israeli War (1973) broke out during the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur, hence its name, the Yom Kippur War. Egypt and Syria launched a surprise... Continue reading "Middle East Conflicts and Cold War Military Alignments" »

The French Revolution

The French Revolution: In 1789, King Louis XVI convened the assembly to announce new taxes to improve the economy. However, the privileged refused to renounce their advantages. Before 1789, members of the Third Estate proclaimed a National Assembly, marking the beginning of the French Revolution.

1st Stage: Moderate Revolution (1789-1792)

Louis XVI sent troops to Paris, triggering a reaction from the people who stormed the Bastille prison, a symbol of royal power.

2nd Stage: Republic and Reign of Terror (1792-1795)

In 1792, Austria and Prussia declared war on France, aiming to restore the Ancien Régime. The radical Jacobins, supported by the people of Paris, seized power, abolished the monarchy, and proclaimed the Republic.... Continue reading "French Revolution & Napoleonic Era: Key Events & Timeline" »

1. Economic Policies

What are economic policies? Strategies or packages designed by governments regarding the economic driving of their country.

2. Administrative Policy Organization

Based on an administrative policy, an organization composed of various local authorities with some capacity for self-government, but dependent on the central government for main functions, is referred to as:

3. Mercantilism

"Colbert only seeks that the French are able to dispense with all other peoples (...) One of the main causes of the shortage of money in France, in the midst of such plenty of corn and wine, comes from the Dutchmen no longer seeking them, as they did in the past, because our conduct with regard to trade with them clearly shows that we do not want

Victorian Era

The Victorian era, coinciding with the reign of Queen Victoria I, marked the peak of the UK's territorial expansion and financial consolidation. This period solidified democratic practices in the UK.

Bipartisanship

The British parliamentary model is characterized by its marked bipartisanship, with power alternating between two main parties: the Conservatives, led by figures like Disraeli, and the Whigs or Liberals, with Gladstone as a prominent leader.

Bicameralism

The British parliamentary model introduced bicameralism, dividing Parliament into two representative chambers: the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Members of the Commons are elected and hold legislative power. The Lords comprises members of the nobility and individuals... Continue reading "Victorian Era to Weltpolitik: 19th Century European Politics" »

The Iron Curtain: A World Divided

The rupture between the two blocs took place in 1947 when the US president described what is known as the Truman Doctrine. It denounced the creation of communist regimes in countries occupied by the Red Army and proposed American intervention to stop the communist threat in Europe. Consequently, the US:

• Increased the number of troops and US bases in Europe.
• Proposed the Marshall Plan, an economic aid program for the reconstruction of the old continent, aiming to steer Europe away from poverty and the risk of communist expansion. Most countries accepted the US aid, which was rejected by the USSR and Eastern European countries.

In response, the USSR proposed the Zhdanov Doctrine, an act that denounced the United... Continue reading "Cold War: US-Soviet Tensions and Global Impact" »

Liberal and Moderate Political Parties

The establishment of the liberal state brought about the existence of representative bodies. Political parties remain the instruments to provide representatives to these institutions. The great restriction of voting rights and the lack of parliamentary tradition disenfranchised the vast majority of people in party politics. This caused a militarization of political life.

Party leaders were senior military officers appearing throughout politics, a strain of the "swords": Espartero, Narváez, O'Donnell, Prim, Serrano, Pavía... In the context of the Carlist civil war, the division of the Liberals ended, and the Liberal Triennium commenced in two groups: Moderates and Progressives.

The Moderates

The Moderates,... Continue reading "Liberal and Moderate Political Parties: History & Ideologies" »

Nationalist Faction (1936)

Political Power: Military control in Nationalist areas, contrasting with the Republic. Sanjurjo and Mola initially led, but Sanjurjo's death in a plane crash altered the leadership.

Military Command: A five-member junta (Mola, Cabanelles, Saliquet, Ponte, Dávila) directed the Nationalist forces, emphasizing hierarchical obedience.

Economy: The army controlled production and distribution to sustain the war effort, ensuring food supply and militarizing the economy.

Social Repression: Suppression of opposing ideas was enforced on both sides.

Nationalist Initiatives (Oct 1936 - May 1937)

Military Campaigns: Attempts to expand territory through Madrid and Málaga campaigns, involving international troops, notably Italian forces.... Continue reading "Spanish Civil War: Nationalists and Republicans 1936-1937" »

The government offered no resistance and formed a dimitio cabinet. Canovas communicated to the regency his proclamation as rey (king) for Alfonso. To restore the authority of the crown, Canovas appointed new monarchical governors and mayors and enacted a series of repressive measures against the opposition. He also re-established the concordat in its entirety and ensured the economic contributions of the state to the church. Canovas kept in touch with progressive and democratic leaders, wanting them to accept the monarchy.

The final campaign against the Carlists allowed their surrender in March 1876 (Somorrostro manifesto). Carlism had been defeated, but the problems associated with it remained unresolved. The end of the Carlist War allowed... Continue reading "The Spanish Restoration: Canovas and the Monarchy" »

The Crash of 1929 and the Great Depression

Causes of the Crash

The crisis in traditional industrial sectors was exacerbated in the years before the crash. The same happened in agriculture. Non-inclusive industrial sectors in 1927 experienced the consequences of decreased purchasing power of wages and falling incomes. The construction sector entered into crisis due to market saturation.

The Situation of Young People and the Sinking of the Stock Market

On October 24th, 13 million shares were offered for sale with almost no demand. Panic spread, and on the 29th, another 16.5 million shares were sold, collapsing the market. Stock values continued to sink until 1933.

The Great Depression

The collapse of the stock market led to a protracted crisis known... Continue reading "The 1929 Crash, Great Depression, and Stalin's USSR" »

First Elections and the UCD Government

The first elections saw a majority for the UCD (Union of the Democratic Centre), led by Adolfo Suárez, with the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party), led by Felipe González, as the main opposition. Other significant parties included the PCE (Communist Party of Spain), led by Santiago Carrillo, and the AP (People's Alliance), led by Manuel Fraga.

The first UCD government took several key actions:

• It appointed a committee to draft a new constitution.
• It addressed the economic crisis by signing the Moncloa Pacts, aimed at modernizing the Spanish economy and increasing social security contributions.
• It implemented a tax reform.
• It decreed a second amnesty.

The 1978 Constitution

The 1978 Constitution established... Continue reading "Spain's Transition to Democracy: 1977-2004" »