Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Maria Skłodowska's Formative Years in Warsaw

Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, Congress Poland, Russian Empire, on November 7, 1867. She was the fifth and youngest child of well-known teachers, Bronisława née Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski. Maria's elder siblings were Zofia (born 1862, nicknamed Zosia), Józef (born 1863, nicknamed Józio), Bronisława (born 1865, nicknamed Bronia), and Helena (born 1866, nicknamed Hela).^[13][14][15]

A Legacy of Patriotism and Hardship

On both paternal and maternal sides, the family had lost their property and fortunes through patriotic involvement in Polish national uprisings aimed at restoring Poland's independence, the most recent being the January Uprising of 1863–65.^[16] This condemned the... Continue reading "Maria Skłodowska's Formative Years: Warsaw to Scientific Ambition" »

The Rise of Fascism

A. Causes of Fascism

1. Dissatisfaction with peace agreements after World War I.
2. Post-war crises: economic depression, unemployment, inflation, and social unrest, which fueled revolutionary movements and frightened conservative sectors of society.

B. Creation of Fascism in Italy

Benito Mussolini, a journalist, spearheaded the fascist movement in Italy.

C. Foundation of the Fascist Party (1921)

Mussolini's fascist party used parliamentary groups to suppress the workers' movement, including groups like the Italian Combat Squad and the Blackshirts.

D. Support for Fascism

Fascism gained support from large landowners, the petite bourgeoisie, the Church, and King Emmanuel III.

E. Fascist Paramilitary Groups

The Fascist party organized paramilitary... Continue reading "The Rise of Fascism and World War II" »

Spain: The Reign of Isabel II (1833-1868)

The reign of Isabel II marked the end of absolutism in Spain and the establishment of a liberal and constitutional monarchy.

Characteristics of the Reign

The reign had 8 characteristics:

1. When Isabel II was a child, 2 regents governed in her place:
   • Mª Cristina (her mother)
   • Espartero (army officer)
2. The royal power was limited by the constitution.
3. Isabel had the support of 2 liberal political parties:
   • The moderate party: who defended a stronger monarchy.
   • The progressive party: who wanted to limit royal power.
4. New constitutions were proposed and limited suffrage was established.
5. The military participated in politics, forming part of the government and staging revolts to obtain more power.
6. Different Carlist wars broke

The Consequences of the War

The conflict caused:

• 55 million deaths
• A huge number of wounded military personnel
• Civilian victims

In 1945, conferences were held at Yalta (February) and Potsdam (July-August) at which the leaders of the Allies discussed the redrawing of the frontiers of Europe.

• Germany was divided into occupation zones. Berlin was divided into four military territories (British, French, Soviet, and American).
• Italy was occupied by Anglo-American armies.
• Japan was occupied by the United States.
• The USSR enlarged its frontiers and occupied various countries in Eastern Europe.

Europe’s prewar hegemony was replaced by a new international order led by the two main powers, the USA and the USSR. The UN (United Nations) was created to maintain... Continue reading "World War II: Consequences and Cultural Shifts (1919-1945)" »

Post-World War I Diplomacy: Conferences and Treaties (1921-1933)

Key International Agreements

Washington Naval Conference (1921-1922)

Following Japan's expansion in battleship construction, the USA became concerned about naval power in the Pacific. The Washington Naval Treaty stipulated that the Japanese Navy's size could not exceed three-fifths that of the U.S. Navy, aiming to limit naval arms and prevent an arms race.

The Genoa Conference (1922)

This conference proved to be a complete failure. Germany requested more time to pay its war reparations, but France, in urgent need of the funds, refused the request.

The Treaty of Rapallo (1922)

Signed by Germany and the USSR, this 10-year treaty established an alliance between the two nations. It allowed... Continue reading "Post-World War I Diplomacy: Shaping European Peace" »

Philip II's Conflicts

After France was defeated in the Battle of Saint-Quentin, Henry II signed the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559. Then, a civil war broke out in France between the Catholics and Protestants.

Conflicts

Against the Protestants in the Low Countries

In 1568, in the northern countries where Calvinism had spread, the population rose up against the king. Philip II sent the Duke of Alba, who carried out a harsh military campaign. He was replaced by Alexander, who maintained control in Flanders, although the northern territories proclaimed their independence from the Spanish crown in 1581. The war lasted until 1648.

Against the Ottoman Empire

Philip II organized the Holy League in order to end Ottoman control over the Mediterranean Sea.... Continue reading "Philip II's Conflicts: France, Netherlands, Ottomans, and England" »

1 - War and Revolution (1914-23)

1870-1914 Period of uneasy peace in Europe. Rivalries continued between countries, resulting in two main alliances.

In July 1914, World War I began, with the two alliances fighting against each other.

Industry reconverted to manufacture weapons and military equipment.

Society also changed due to the war. Women began to work in factories while men fought in the war.

2.1. The Causes of the War

• Tension during the uneasy peace.
• Rivalries to recover territories, for example, France over Alsace-Lorraine against Germany, or the Balkan crisis between Russia and the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
• Economic rivalries, above all between Great Britain (former industrial power) and Germany (current), which led to a hard fight to control

Analysis of the Manifesto of the Persians

The Manifesto of the Persians is a socio-political document addressed to King Ferdinand VII, signed in Madrid in 1814. This document expresses the desires of the old nobility and clergy, demanding the restoration of the old regime and the abolition of the Constitution of 1812.

This collection of items highlights the fundamental principles that sought to defend the need for a return to absolute monarchy as a means of guaranteeing order and the proper functioning of the nation.

Context and Significance

The document refers to the anarchic situation that Spain had allegedly experienced during the previous six years. Article 134 presents absolute monarchy as the only way to ensure the correct use of "reason... Continue reading "Analysis of the Manifesto of the Persians: Context and Impact" »

Babydoll's Fight for Freedom

In an action fantasy set within the vivid imagination of a young girl, her dream world offers the ultimate escape from a dark reality. Unrestrained by time and place, she's free to explore wherever her mind takes her, blurring the lines between reality and imagination. Locked away against her will, Babydoll (Emily Browning) remains determined to survive.

Driven to fight for her freedom, she rallies four other young women: the outspoken Rocket (Jena Malone), the street-smart Blondie (Vanessa Hudgens), the fiercely loyal Amber (Jamie Chung), and the reluctant Sweet Pea (Abbie Cornish). Together, they band together to escape their terrible fate at the hands of their captors: Blue (Oscar Isaac), Madam Gorski (Carla Gugino)... Continue reading "Babydoll and The Bride: Action Fantasy & Revenge Thriller" »

The Vietnam War and Cold War Tensions

In 1964, an American destroyer was attacked by North Vietnam, escalating the conflict into a full-scale war between the two countries. The USA was ultimately defeated in a deal with the Vietnamese guerrillas. Vietnam was then united into one country under communist rule.

Of all these conflicts, the one that raised the most international tension was the Cuban Missile Crisis, as it represented a direct confrontation between the two superpowers, rather than between their satellite countries.

Capitalism vs. Communism: Ideological Divide

The fundamental difference between capitalism and communism lies in their economic systems:

• Capitalism is an economic system where the means of production are primarily privately