Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Washington Irving – The Legend of Sleepy Hollow (1820)

At the time, in the decades following the Revolutionary War, the United States was in the process of constructing a national identity. Many Americans felt that the young nation lacked a cultural identity, as well as a national mythology and folklore.

Unreliability of Stories

One of Washington Irving's main messages in 'The Legend of Sleepy Hollow' is the need to question stories, whether they are legends that have been handed down, tales told among friends, or contemporary works of fiction and nonfiction. By using and explaining a complex framing device, Irving sets readers up to question the story's veracity. It is the story of Ichabod Crane as narrated by Diedrich Knickerbocker, who heard... Continue reading "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow: Unreliability of Stories and the Supernatural" »

Factors Leading to the 1905 Russian Revolution

• The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)

  The war for control of Manchuria was deeply unpopular in Russia. New taxes were imposed to finance the conflict, and Russia's defeat led to increased public hostility towards Tsar Nicholas II.

• The Emergence of Political Parties

  Despite being forbidden, various political parties emerged, all opposed to the Tsar's autocratic rule. This burgeoning opposition signaled the growing desire for political reform.

• Bloody Sunday and the 1905 Revolution

  In January 1905, industrial workers in St. Petersburg marched peacefully on the Winter Palace to petition the Tsar for improved working conditions and political reforms. The Tsar's troops fired upon the unarmed protesters, an event

Banco de España: Autonomy and Integration

In 1980, the Law on the Governing Bodies of the Banco de España granted the bank significant autonomy in its operations and monetary policy. In 1985, the Treaty of Accession to the European Economic Community was signed, and the Banco de España became a member of the Eurosystem.

The Ley Orgánica de Regulación de las Normas Básicas sobre Órganos Rectores de las Cajas de Ahorro was enacted, and a few years later, savings banks were given full freedom to expand nationally. These measures aimed for more democratic management but led to serious problems, evidenced by the disappearance of most savings banks during the previous financial crisis.

The Ley de Disciplina e Intervención Bancaria (1998) extended... Continue reading "Banco de España: Autonomy, Eurosystem Integration & Evolution" »

Evolution of Security Threats

Indeed, the 21st Century has seen a change in the types of threats. Threats include the proliferation of ballistic missiles, proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, terrorism, cyber attacks, attacks on communication and transport, the use of laser weapons, and electronic warfare. Member states are not at peace and face new security threats that are not stated in the 2010 Strategic Concept. The US and European member countries are facing terrorism threats, for instance. After Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, NATO returned its attention to Europe, and the member countries confronted their decline in defense spending. The Wales Summit in 2014 addressed these issues and the implementation of the biggest reinforcement... Continue reading "Evolution of Security Threats and Global Governance" »

NATIONALISM

New Year Celebrations in Ecuador

Ecuador's New Year celebrations are a unique and vibrant affair. Beginning with the Day of the Innocents and extending until New Year's Eve, the festivities are full of tradition and revelry.

One striking custom involves families burning effigies resembling humanoid monkeys with the faces of famous people. This act symbolizes the passing of the old year.

Another tradition sees men dressing up as the "widows of the old year." These playful figures dance and playfully accost passing cars, demanding a "toll" that inevitably fuels the merriment with more alcohol. If you plan to drive through the streets of Quito on New Year's Eve, be prepared to part with plenty of coins, or these "widows" might just delay your journey... Continue reading "A Guide to Ecuadorian Celebrations: New Year & Mama Negra" »

The Franco-Prussian War and Its Aftermath

The Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) played a pivotal role in escalating tensions in Europe. France's defeat and the loss of Alsace-Lorraine fueled resentment and a desire for revenge. The unification of Germany under Prussian leadership, along with the imposition of heavy reparations on France, further destabilized the region. The proclamation of the Second German Empire in 1871, with King William I as Emperor, marked the rise of a powerful Germany with significant military and industrial potential.

Germany's Foreign Policy Under William II

Emperor William II's dismissal of Otto von Bismarck and his refusal to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia proved detrimental. These actions isolated France... Continue reading "Germany's Role in the Outbreak of World War I" »

The End of the Ancient Regime

Factors of Change

Economic growth and the aspirations of the Third Estate, especially the bourgeoisie, were key factors of change. The bourgeoisie criticized the privileges of the nobles and clergy. Most members of society wanted to end the dominance of the privileged classes and establish a monarchy that considered the interests of the Third Estate.

Social Divisions in the Ancient Regime

Society was divided into three estates: the clergy (First Estate), the nobles (Second Estate), and the peasants and bourgeoisie (Third Estate). The main feature of this stratified society was civic inequality.

The Atlantic Slave Trade

Slaves were taken from Africa to the Americas, where they were sold and forced to work in terrible... Continue reading "The Enlightenment and the End of the Ancient Regime" »

Origins of the European Union

Several key forces drove the formation of the European Union:

• Traditional Federalism: Thinkers like Rousseau and Victor Hugo envisioned a united Europe.
• Post-WWII Rebuilding: The devastation of World War II, both in human and economic terms, spurred a desire for cooperation and recovery.
• The Marshall Plan: This U.S. initiative provided significant financial aid to Western Europe, accelerating economic recovery and fostering cooperation.

The Marshall Plan and European Recovery

The Marshall Plan, officially the European Recovery Program, was a U.S. initiative that provided $12 billion in economic assistance to Western Europe after World War II. Its goals included:

• Rebuilding war-torn regions
• Removing trade barriers
• Modernizing