Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

Root Causes

Revanchism and depression marked the society of the interwar period. The sanctions of the Treaty of Versailles and the consequences of the crash of 1929 favored the rise of dictatorships and the failure of democracies. Thus, certain foreign policies (Italy, Germany, and Japan) became radicalized by claiming their living space, international prestige, and improvement of the economy. This contrasted with the pacifist work of Pius XII that would not have an effect.

In a bid to achieve them, they opted for militarization. The economy would boost the arms industry, with the main powers responding poorly:

1. The United States of America would stay out.

2. The USSR would mistrust the West.

3. France would trust the British.

4. The United Kingdom would propose

The Urban Society

Bourgeoisie: a new social group emerged in these cities. They were not tied to a lord or participated in the feudal relations. They were merchants and bankers, and quickly became the richest citizens.

• There was also a poorer population: servants, laborers, beggars, or fugitive serfs who did the hard work.
• Many towns had a Jewish population who lived in Jewish quarters or ghettos.
• There were also Moorish quarters, where the Muslims lived.

The Economy of a Medieval City

Trade: the most important function of a city. Usually, the cities celebrated fairs, where people from other cities came to sell their products.

• Currency: in the Early Middle Ages, the Roman currency was replaced by bartering. But now, we can see gold coins again working

Global Economic Imbalances

The United States benefitted hugely from the First World War. None of its land had been destroyed, its human losses were relatively small, and sales of food, weapons, and industrial products to the allies had benefitted it enormously. By the time the war ended, the United States had become the world's leading economic power. Its agricultural production was very high, and its industrial production represented 44.8% of global production. Its higher level of competitiveness opened up international markets to its products, which invaded the global markets that had previously been dominated by European industries. In addition, many European countries were indebted to the United States as a result of the war loans.

In contrast... Continue reading "Global Economic Imbalances: The Impact of World War I and the Great Depression" »

Gandhi's Intervention in Champaran: A Victory for Indigo Sharecroppers

The Plight of Indigo Sharecroppers

Indigo sharecroppers in Champaran faced severe exploitation under the British colonial system. They were forced to cultivate indigo on a significant portion of their land and surrender the entire harvest as rent, leading to perpetual debt and hardship.

Gandhi's Arrival and Investigation

Rajkumar Shukla, a determined peasant, sought Mahatma Gandhi's help to address the grievances of the sharecroppers. Gandhi, moved by their plight, traveled to Champaran and conducted a thorough investigation, exposing the injustices faced by the farmers.

Civil Disobedience and Negotiation

Gandhi employed his philosophy of Satyagraha, advocating for nonviolent... Continue reading "Gandhi's Triumph in Champaran: A Turning Point in India's Freedom Struggle" »

The Decline and Partial Restoration of the Fueros (1839-1868)

Under General Espartero, a new decree (1841) was issued for the 3 Basque provinces: General Juntas and Councils were abolished, civil governors would be appointed to the Basque provinces from Madrid, tolls were changed to the seaports, and tax exemption and exemption from conscription and civil law were maintained.

Another new law was issued for Navarre called Ley Paccionada (16 Aug 1841). Through this law, Navarre ceased to be a kingdom and became a province, the old Cortes of Navarre and the tax exemption were abolished, Navarre lost its legislative power, and tolls were set up on the Pyrenees border with France. The province could still raise taxes, and a fixed amount, a quota,... Continue reading "The Fueros and the Carlist Wars: A History of Basque Politics in the 19th Century" »

Lot of people were killed during the war, but the killings did not stop and a period of official state reprisal began. Those suspected of affiliation with pro-republic ideologies were summarily rounded up and executed. Many people fled the country.

The new Francoist state officially branded Biscay and Gipuzcoa as ‘traitorous’ provinces. This served to legitimize the state terror imposed on the inhabitants of the two provinces. Inhabitants were terrorized for being Basque.

Measures:

• Total suppression of the Basque language
• Only university in the Basque Provinces was closed
• Libraries of social and cultural associations were seized by troops and there was mass burning of books in Basque
• Teaching of the language was prohibited in all schools
• The use

Warsaw Pact

The Warsaw Pact was a military alliance created by the USSR and the people democracies in Eastern Europe to defend themselves from the capitalist bloc. The GDR was a new style created in the part controlled by the USSR in the German territory. It was created in 1949 and existed until 1990 when the two German reunified. It was a single party with a planned economy.

United Nations

The United Nations was an organization created on June 20th, 1945, in the conference of San Francisco to replace the League of Nations. Its main objectives initially were maintaining peace worldwide, promoting international cooperation, respecting human rights, and promoting the self-determination of colonies.

Normandy Landing

The Normandy Landing was the arrival... Continue reading "Warsaw Pact, GDR, United Nations, Normandy Landing, Revolution of 1905, Soviets, February Revolution of 1917, October Revolution of 1917" »

The Cuban Missile Crisis

Cuba, an ally of the Soviet Union, received diplomatic and financial aid. Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev decided to convert Cuba into a Russian base. In 1962, he placed nuclear missiles in Cuba, threatening the US mainland. After three weeks, the US became aware of the missiles. President John F. Kennedy ordered American warships to intercept Soviet ships heading to Cuba as a warning. This standoff is known as the Cuban Missile Crisis.

The End of World War II and the Dawn of the Cold War

The end of World War II marked the beginning of the Cold War. The war concluded when the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, leading to Japan's surrender. This decision remains controversial, with critics... Continue reading "Cold War and Post-Cold War Era: Key Events and Analysis" »

The Crisis of the Bourbon Monarchy (1804-1814)

King Charles IV declared war on France, resulting in a disastrous outcome. Minister Manuel Godoy sought an alliance with Napoleon against Great Britain and attacked Portugal. Public discontent forced Godoy's resignation, and Charles IV abdicated in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. Napoleon summoned both to France, paving the way for his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, to become the new Spanish king.

The War of Independence (1804-1814)

A popular revolt erupted in Madrid against French rule. Juntas and a Supreme Central Junta were formed to coordinate the resistance. Guerrilla groups emerged, and cities held firm against the invaders. British troops, led by Wellington, provided crucial support. By the end... Continue reading "Spain: From Bourbon Monarchy to Restoration (1804-1888)" »