Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Post-Napoleonic Europe: The Restoration Era

After Napoleon was defeated in the War of Independence of Spain and ultimately in 1815, the Restoration period began. This marked a return to the political system of the Ancien Régime, known as absolutism.

The Quadruple Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain) met at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815). Key measures adopted included:

• The restoration of absolute monarchs to their thrones.
• A restructuring of the European map.
• An agreement among European monarchs to support any legitimate monarch facing threats.

This return to absolutism, however, provoked resistance and fueled revolutions driven by new ideas:

• Liberalism
• Nationalism
• Democracy

Key Ideologies of the 19th Century

Liberalism was an ideology... Continue reading "Europe After Napoleon: Restoration & Change" »

Roman Expansion and Mediterranean Dominance

As Rome expanded through Italy, it granted its citizen-soldiers land, allowed defeated Latin-speakers to become full citizens, and welcomed defeated soldiers into its army. By 272 B.C.E., Rome had conquered the Italian peninsula. Victory in the Second Punic War gave Rome control of the Western Mediterranean. Rome's defeat of the Macedonians and the Greeks in 133 B.C.E. brought it control of the Eastern Mediterranean.

Rome's Longevity, Transformation, and Decline

Rome's empire persisted for so long because of its rulers’ willingness to adopt new structures, such as the Principate and Diocletian's Tetrarchy. Emperor Constantine strengthened the empire but weakened the city of Rome by establishing a new... Continue reading "The Roman Empire: Expansion, Governance, and Enduring Legacy" »

The Korean War (1950-1953)

Why?

After World War II, Korea was divided along the 38th parallel. North Korea, aiming for reunification under communist rule, invaded the South.

Who?

• North Korea (supported by China and the USSR)
• South Korea (supported by the UN, primarily the USA and Great Britain)

Outcome:

The war ended in a stalemate, with the border remaining largely unchanged. The Korean War is significant as the only Cold War conflict that remains unresolved. North Korea's nuclear ambitions continue to pose a threat today.

The Vietnam War (1954-1975)

Why?

During the decolonization of French Indochina after World War II, Vietnam was divided into communist North Vietnam and capitalist South Vietnam. The possibility of South Vietnam falling to communism... Continue reading "Understanding the Cold War: Key Conflicts and Causes" »

Into how many categories the religious sects that originated during the 6th century B.C. can be divided? Ans.

The religious sects of the 6th century B.C. can be divided into two categories:

1. The faiths which were openly against Vedic religion
2. The faiths which did not oppose Vedic religion openly but propagated new principles venerating one or the other old divinity.

What do you mean by “Dharma Chakra Pravartana”? Ans.

Dharma Chakra Pravartana means ‘sitting in motion the wheel of Dharma’. The first religious discourse or sermon delivered by Mahatma Buddha after attaining enlightenment at Mrig dav or Deer Park of Sarnath near Varanasi, is known as ‘Maha chakra Pravartana’

Mention the various incarnations of Vishnu according to Vaishnavism.

Nazi Control in Germany: The Police State

The Gestapo

The Gestapo, under Reinhard Heydrich's command, was the most feared force by ordinary German citizens. Gestapo agents had sweeping powers, including arresting citizens on suspicion and sending them to concentration camps without trial. Fear of the Gestapo led to widespread informing on each other among ordinary Germans.

The Police and Courts

The police and courts also played a role in propping up the Nazi dictatorship. High-ranking Nazis were appointed to top positions in local police forces, reporting directly to Himmler. The police engaged in political snooping in addition to their regular law and order duties, and they were instructed to ignore crimes committed by Nazi agents. The Nazis also... Continue reading "Nazi Control in Germany: The Police State and Propaganda Machine" »

Franco’s Dictatorship

1. Franco: Caudillo of Spain

He had all the power. He was Head of State, Head of Government, and the Supreme General of the Armed Forces. There was no division of power in Spain.

2. NO-DO

Noticiarios y documentales (NO-DO) was a state-controlled series of cinema newsreels in Spain (1943-1981). The NO-DO was watched by all citizens at the cinema, and it was full of one-sided (national) propaganda.

3. Sección Femenina

Sección Femenina was the female branch of the Falange, which guided the life of women.

4. Propaganda

Propaganda was strongly used by the National side, and thanks to the one used for the Referendum of 1947 (regarding the law of succession), Franco got power for life. Apart from that, he was given the right to choose... Continue reading "Francoist Spain: Dictatorship, Memory, and History" »

International Agreements of the 1920s

France's Treaties (1920)

Countries: Belgium, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia.
Goal: To protect France from future German attacks by creating military and friendship treaties with Germany's neighbors.
Outcome: Successful.

Geneva Protocol (1924)

Countries: Britain and France.
Goal: To strengthen the League of Nations' authority in disputes by requiring members to seek League arbitration and accept its decisions. Armed forces could be used against aggressors.
Outcome: Not successful.

Dawes Plan (1924)

Countries: USA, Britain, France, Belgium, Germany.
Goal: To address Germany's economic collapse and inability to pay reparations. The plan extended Germany's reparation payment period, offered American loans... Continue reading "International Agreements of the 1920s: A Path to Peace?" »

Francoist Cortes Dissolution

This law was approved by the Francoist Cortes, although it meant their own dissolution. To convoke elections, it was necessary to put an end to the Francoist Cortes; this law abolished those Cortes.

1977: A Year of Change

In the first six months of 1977, significant changes were made:

• Further amnesty for political prisoners
• Independent trade unions replaced vertical syndicates
• Right to strike was restored
• Legalization of political parties began in February

June 1977 Elections

Elections were convoked in June 1977, after trade unions and the PCE (Communist Party of Spain) were legalized. The UCD (Union of the Democratic Centre) won, and the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party) came second. Another feature was the important... Continue reading "Spain's Transition to Democracy: Reforms and Challenges (1977-1985)" »

CONSTRUCTION OF THE LIBERAL STATE (1833-1874)

The First Carlist War and the Rise of Isabelline Spain

Ferdinand VII's decision to allow female succession through the Pragmatic Sanction sparked conflict with his brother, Carlos Mª Isidro, leading to the First Carlist War (1833-1839). The Carlists, supporters of Carlos, defended absolutism and traditional institutions, while the Isabelline faction, backing Isabella II, embraced liberalism and reform.

Following a series of Carlist defeats, the Isabelline forces, led by General Espartero, emerged victorious. The Vergara Agreement of 1839 officially ended the war, granting amnesty to Carlist soldiers while preserving some regional autonomy (fueros).

The Implantation of the Liberal State (1833-1843)

During... Continue reading "The Rise of the Liberal State in Spain (1833-1874)" »

Phases of the French Revolution

Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792)

Once in the Estates General, the Third Estate proposed to change the voting system to one individual vote per member. The king refused, and the bourgeoisie declared themselves the true representatives of the nation. They proclaimed a National Assembly and pledged to draft a constitution. The king eventually agreed to demands, and a National Constituent Assembly was formed to abolish feudalism, approve the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens, and draw up a constitution based on the separation of power and national sovereignty with limited male suffrage (suffrage censitaire). The Legislative Assembly began to govern with the rules of the constitution, forcing the nobility... Continue reading "French Revolution Phases and Napoleon's Rise to Power" »