Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Dawn of Latin American Independence (1810-1825)

The Independence movement in Latin America, which had been simmering since the United States broke away from Great Britain in 1776, came to a boil around 1810. Spain's vast Empire in the New World crumbled, and by 1825, all that remained were a few islands in the Caribbean. This passionate, violent era in Latin American history is particularly fascinating. In 1810, South America was still part of Spain's immense New World Empire. By 1825, however, the continent was free, having won its independence at the cost of bloody wars with Spanish and royalist forces. Independence might never have been achieved without the brave leadership of men and women ready to fight for liberty.

Key Causes of Independence

• Creole

Mexico's Path to Independence and Early Republic

In Mexico, the struggle for independence began with priests Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla and José María Morelos y Pavón. It was ultimately completed by Agustín de Iturbide, who led a coalition of Creoles terrified of being governed by the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812.

Economic Challenges of the New Nation

With the end of the Spanish monopoly, the volume of foreign trade grew significantly, from 148 ships in 1823 to 639 in 1826. However, exports did not keep pace with imports, creating a substantial deficit. This imbalance necessitated the export of precious metals, which in turn created severe problems for the new government. The only way to overcome this crisis was through foreign loans.... Continue reading "Mexico's 19th Century: Independence, Reform, and Nation-Building" »

George ORWELL.Eric (George) was A middle-class Indian. Hi father was an officer in Burma. His mother Took him to England and there he was vrey happy. At the age of 8 he Was sent to a boarding school and it was very traumatic because he Was alone. Being middle-class, Orwell's family could afford to send Him to a boarding school. George was a smart child. In theory, the Boarding school trated all children gool, but in practise the Threatment depended on their status. Orwell felt discriminated, Undervalued by rich people. They gave him his first social injustice. They beat and called cynic for not being like the others. Eric wanted To go to University, but what he did was to be a policeman in India. He returned to Burma, which was under the power... Continue reading "Who did George try to find out what wanted" »

The Russian Revolution: Key Events, Causes, and Outcomes

The February Revolution (1917)

The uprising in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) in February 1917 culminated in the February Revolution. The monarchy fell and was replaced by two bodies:

1. The Provisional Government: Created to organize elections for a Duma. Alexander Kerensky took control of this government.
2. The Petrograd Soviet: Represented the workers and soldiers.

The Bolshevik Slogan

The Bolsheviks' slogan was:

• Peace: An end to World War I.
• Bread: Relief from the prevalent hunger.
• Land: Redistribution of land owned by the aristocracy.

The October Revolution (1917)

The Bolsheviks seized power in an uprising planned by Leon Trotsky, the president of the Petrograd Soviet. The Bolsheviks formed a new government,... Continue reading "Russian Revolution: Key Events, Causes, and Outcomes" »

Key Events Leading to World War II

• 1919: The Treaty of Versailles is signed.
• 1924: Hitler writes "Mein Kampf," outlining his plans.
• 1939: The Global Depression, triggered by the Wall Street crash, helps dictators rise to power.
• 1933: Hitler becomes Chancellor and begins to rebuild his army in secret.
• 1935: Abyssinia invasion: The League of Nations fails.
• 1936: The Rhineland is reoccupied.
• 1936-1939: The Spanish Civil War (Germany rehearses arms and aircraft).
• 1936: Rome-Berlin Axis: Hitler-Mussolini Alliance.
• 1938: Anschluss, the annexation of Austria into Germany.
• 1938: Munich Agreement (Hitler sought more power and territories).
• 1939: Nazis invade Czechoslovakia.
• 1939: The Nazi-Soviet Pact.
• 1939: Invasion of Poland.

World War II: Major Events

• 1939-9: Nazi

The Geography of Rome and Italy

Rome was born in the heart of the agricultural plain of Latium, by the Tiber River and on the hillsides of the seven hills comprising its strategic location.

Geographical Features

• The Mountains

  The Italian Peninsula occupies the center of the Mediterranean. We know it as "the Boot." It is crossed by the Apennines, a mountain range which runs centrally between its two coasts. To the north, Italy is blocked by the Alps. When the Romans went through them, the course of history and the Mediterranean changed.

• The Seas and Islands

  Three seas bathe Italy: the Adriatic, the Tyrrhenian, and the Ionian. Notable islands include Sicily, Sardinia, and smaller islands like Elba and Capri.

• The Rivers

  • a) In the north: the Po
  • b) The Arno,

21 JULY 1876 LAW

The text we have this time is a letter in which several articles from a legal law are kept. It deals with the matter of eliminating the Basque Fueros. It was written by the Spanish Courts and the king in force Alphonse XII in 1876, after the end of the 3^rd Carlist War.

In the 1^st Carlist War, Basque people supported Carlists in order to maintain the Fueros. As Carlists were defeated, some reforms were made in those Fueros. After the Glorious Revolution, in 1868, Isabella II (the Queen) was expelled from the throne and instead, Amadeo of Savoy. In that moment, a conflict started because some liberals appeared in favor of Carlism, not to lose the fueros. So again, as in the 1^st Carlist War, the conflict was between liberals and... Continue reading "The 1876 Law: Elimination of Basque Fueros" »

Many historians claim that the Treaty of Versailles was a failure because it ultimately led to the rise of Adolf Hitler, World War II, and the Holocaust. But the big question is, why did the Treaty of Versailles fail? History claims that the Treaty failed as it brewed resentment amongst the Germans and also did not help in satisfying the Americans, French, and the British.

Germany's Punishment After World War I

Germany was seen as the country that led to World War I. Hence, the Allies decided to make the country sign a harsh and stringent treaty. This treaty forced Germany to concede its territories to other nations like Poland, Belgium, and Czechoslovakia and return the French land that was annexed during the Franco-Prussian War. Germany even... Continue reading "Treaty of Versailles: Causes of Failure and Impact on WWII" »

My name isSimón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios, better known historically as Simón Bolívar, even though my admirers prefer to name me also because of my title of Liberator, obtained after fighting more than twenty years for the independence of the South American countries and the conformation of Gran Colombia.

I was born on July 24, 1783, in the city of Caracas, Venezuela, even though some theses mention the possibility that my birth actually took place at my parents' farm in San Mateo, a town located a few hours from the capital. In this way, I became the third child of the spouses Juan Vicente Bolívar and Ponte-Andrade and María de la Concepción Palacios y Blanco . However, fate wanted me to remain an... Continue reading "Spanish provinces" »

Government

• The pharaohs had viziers.

• Almost every pharaoh was a man.

• When a pharaoh died, his son or wife would sometimes become the next pharaoh.

• The pharaoh was the king and was considered a god.

• They had a dynasty, meaning there was a series of rulers from the same family.

• Menes was the first king to unite Upper and Lower Egypt.

Innovation

• Egypt prospered under effective pharaohs.

• The pharaohs used their enormous wealth and power to build pyramids.

• The pyramids represented the Egyptian belief that life is a passageway to the afterlife, an existence believed to follow death.

• The pyramids took many years to build.

• The first pyramid built was Khufu.

• The pyramids were built in the Old Kingdom.

Vulnerability

• The Hyksos came to live in Egypt and brought an end