Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

Ferdinand VII: The Restoration of Absolutism (1813-1833)

Ferdinand returned to Spain in 1814. His reign is divided into three phases:

1. Six Years of Absolutism (1814-1820):

   Upon his return, Ferdinand sought to establish an absolute monarchy, reverting to the Ancien Régime. He annulled the constitution and reversed the Cortes' reforms.

2. Liberal Triennium (1820-1823):

   A successful pronunciamiento forced Ferdinand to reinstate the constitution. Liberals formed the national militia, composed of liberal volunteers, to defend it. Ferdinand appealed to the Holy Alliance for help in restoring absolutism.

3. Ominous Decades (1823-1833):

   The first crisis emerged in 1823 when the king rejected financial reforms, fearing the loss of support from those who would have

Collectivisation

The USSR needed to produce more food, so increasing production was essential. The majority of peasants were poor and lacked equipment for working the land. The kulaks were rich peasants who were influential in villages but annoyed the Communist Party. Stalin began collectivising all farms: peasants worked together on lands, and when the harvest was collected, a part was sold to the government at a low price, the rest for peasants. They were forced to collectivise. The problem with collectivisation was that due to the speed of the change, their traditional way of life was destroyed. Kulaks resisted the change. The new exploitations were forced to grow particular crops needed for industry and had to supply a specific amount to... Continue reading "Impact of Collectivisation and Stalin's Purges in the USSR" »

1. The Second World War

The Second World War was a military conflict that took place between 1939 and 1945. The war involved almost all of the European countries, Japan, the United States, China, and the European colonies in North Africa, Asia, and Oceania. This conflict involved total war: countries employed all the available resources to defeat the enemy, including human, military, economic, and scientific resources. In addition, war was waged against the whole population, both the military forces and the civilian population.

1.1. The Causes of the War

The reasons for the outbreak of war were the following:

• Nationalist Discontent: At the end of the First World War, both Germany and Italy were unhappy. Germany was unhappy because the Treaty of

The original thirteen colonies were divided into three distinct regions: the New England Colonies, the Middle Colonies, and the Southern Colonies. Each region possessed unique characteristics in terms of their founding principles, challenges faced, religious practices, and economic systems. These differences stemmed from various factors, including interactions with Native American tribes, climate variations, and the motivations behind their establishment. Despite their disparities, all thirteen colonies shared a common thread as English settlements under the rule of the British monarchy.

The New England Colonies

The New England Colonies were renowned for their diversified economy, encompassing fishing, farming, and shipbuilding industries. They... Continue reading "The Thirteen Colonies: A Comparative Analysis" »

Spain's Role in World War II

What was the position of Franco in World War II? Was Spain involved in the conflict? While Franco avoided direct involvement in the war, he was ambitious and desired to gain an empire through participation. However, Spain was ill-prepared for such a challenge, especially after the Spanish Civil War left the country economically and militarily devastated. Mussolini's unexpected failures upon entering the war caused trouble for Hitler, forcing Germany to commit enormous resources to rescue operations. Spain, in its weakened state, could not afford such risks.

Later, Franco sought acceptance into the United Nations, but his request was rejected. The General Assembly recognized that Franco had collaborated with the Axis... Continue reading "Spain's Role in World War II and Other Key WWII Events" »

Key Political Terms

Ballot The act of holding a secret vote. As a verb, holding a secret vote. No one knows who you voted for.

Bill A proposed change in the law. When it is still in the planning stage and before it becomes legal, a law is called a bill.

Coalition The time when different political parties agree on something for a reason.

Democracy A system where power is held by the people through elections. One person = one vote.

'The alternatives to Democracy, Communism for example, have largely been failures.'

To Elect (Verb) To choose by voting. 'In November Americans will vote for a new President.'

Election The process of choosing a new government or leader. 'In Britain elections are held every 4 or 5 years.'

Election Campaign The organised effort... Continue reading "Understanding Politics: Key Terms and Concepts" »

The Age of Enlightenment

The Age of Enlightenment was a cultural and intellectual movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century. It was an era in intellectual, scientific, and cultural life where reason was regarded as the primary source of legitimacy and authority.

Philosophers of the Enlightenment

Key figures of the Enlightenment included:

• Voltaire
• Rousseau
• Montesquieu
• Diderot
• D'Alembert

These thinkers built upon the ideas of Descartes, Hobbes, and Locke.

Social Contract, National Sovereignty, and Separation of Powers

Rousseau argued that the social contract is an agreement individuals willingly enter to limit their own freedom for the benefit of society.

Montesquieu, inspired by the English parliamentary system, believed... Continue reading "The Age of Enlightenment and the Scientific Revolution" »

Mesopotamia, also known as the Cradle of Civilization, was ruled by 16 different nations.

The Republic of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932. King Faisal ruled until 1979, when Saddam Hussein took power after five different coups.

The Iraq War in 2003, also known as Operation Iraqi Freedom, resulted in the capture of Saddam Hussein, who was found hiding in a hole after Operation Red Dawn.

Saddam Hussein was responsible for the deaths of 148 Shia and 180,000 Kurds in the Anfal Campaign, including the infamous Halabja Attack that killed 15,000 people with chemical weapons.

After his death in 2006, it was revealed that Saddam Hussein had killed 205,000 Kurds, leading to the implementation of no-fly zones over Iraq.

The history of Iraq is... Continue reading "History of Iraq: Wars, Conflicts, and International Relations" »

The Primo de Rivera Dictatorship

In 1923, General Primo de Rivera led a military coup against the Spanish government, claiming that only a dictatorship could resolve the problems of Alfonso XIII's reign. With the king's approval, Primo de Rivera became head of government.

Initially, many sectors of society, including the army, church, and business owners, supported the dictatorship, hoping it would restore order. The Patriotic Union became the sole official party.

To maintain order, the government suppressed protests, regionalist movements, and anarchist organizations. More troops were deployed to Morocco, and in 1926, Spain declared victory in the Rif War.

From 1928 onward, opposition grew, with parties demanding the restoration of the Cortes... Continue reading "Spain's Political Upheavals: From Dictatorship to Civil War" »