Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

Long-Term Causes of World War II

1. The Treaty of Versailles: In Germany, people resented the Treaty of Versailles, which Hitler had promised to destroy. He broke its conditions, firstly by rebuilding Germany's armed forces. Then, in 1936, he reoccupied the Rhineland, an important industrial region that had been made a demilitarized zone by the treaty.

2. The Failure of the League of Nations: The League of Nations was created to keep the peace, but it was unable to prevent the Second World War. In general, the organization failed because it could not enforce treaties or impose its decisions.

3. Expansionism: Authoritarian regimes in Germany, Italy, and Japan felt that they needed to expand the territory under their control in order to acquire... Continue reading "World War II: Origins, Turning Points, and Conclusion" »

THE 1917 REVOLUTIONS

In 1917 there was a revolution which took place in two phases: the liberal-bourgeois revolution in February and the socialist-proletariat revolution in October.

The February Revolution: Provisional Government

In February 1917, there was a successful revolution of workers in Petrograd, supported by soldiers and peasants. Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate. A provisional government was formed, made up of liberals and Menshevik socialists led by the socialist Alexander Kerensky. The new government proclaimed Russia a republic and began to set up a democratic regime. They legalized political parties and called elections with universal male suffrage, to establish a Constituent Assembly that would write a constitution. The... Continue reading "The 1917 Revolutions: February & October" »

19th Century Spanish Politics

The Reign of Fernando VII (1814-1833)

Absolutist Phase (1814-1820)

Fernando VII dismissed the Cortes, abolished the 1812 Constitution, and re-established absolute monarchy.

Liberal Phase (1820-1823)

The Riego and Quiroga military coup forced the king to reinstate the 1812 Constitution and suppressed freedoms.

Ominous Decade (1823-1833)

Aided by the French army (the "100,000 Sons of Saint Louis"), Fernando VII defeated the liberals and reinstated absolutism.

The Reign of Isabel II (1833-1868)

A liberal constitutional monarchy was established with shared sovereignty, support from liberal political parties, constitutions, and military participation.

The Regency Period

Regencies of María Cristina Bourbon and General Espartero.... Continue reading "19th Century Spanish Politics: From Absolutism to Democracy" »

What Was World War II?

World War II, a global armed conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, was a total war in two distinct aspects. Firstly, civilian populations became primary targets and the war's most tragic victims. Secondly, the conflict engulfed all continents, marking it as one of the most brutal and inhumane wars in history.

Driven by Nazi expansionism, World War II represented an ideological struggle. It pitted democracy and socialism against fascism, even sparking civil conflicts within the Axis powers—Germany, Italy, and Japan. The Allied forces—including Britain, France, the USA, and the Soviet Union—fought for liberal democratic principles.

As the largest armed conflict in human history, World War II resulted in unprecedented destruction,... Continue reading "World War II: Causes, Impact, and Legacy" »

IMPERIALISM: It was a political, social and military movement (19th-20th century). It was led by Europeans countries and later by Japan, USA and Russia. The main objective was to become a big empire so, each country needed to conquer some territories (in Africa, Canada, Australia and Asia) known as colonies.

CAUSES OF IMPERIALISM:Economic interests: Industrialized Europeans countries were in search of new markets (to sell their surplus products) and they also wanted to obtain more raw materials (cotton, iron coal…)  and colonial products (sugar, chocolate, tea…) and in that colonies the labor was cheaper (workforce). Population growth: The economic changes caused a huge rise in Europeans population ( less deaths and more food). This caused

The Age of Revolution

• 1776-1871
• The American Revolution
• Thirteen British colonies in Eastern North America
• Economy based on agriculture and trade
• Black slaves worked in agriculture
• Britain had the monopoly of trade
• Political tensions: Settlers payed taxes but did not have political representation. Rejection to buy British products. Boston Tea Party: attack against a ship with tea [ outbreak of the Revolutionary War
• The conflict brought political changes: Jefferson wrote the Virginia declaration of Rights. 1776 Declaration of Independence
• The American Revolutionary War: Colonies were supported by France and Spain. Washington victories Britain recognised independence. Treaty of Versailles 1783. 1787 United States Constitution. 1789 Washington first American

Will Rogers: The American entertainer who traveled the Far East in 1931 had a unique perspective. He particularly liked Shanghai.

Jan Myrdal: In 1982, Myrdal revisited the Chinese village he reported on in 1962. His observations in Return to a Chinese Village expressed disappointment at the changes and continued support for Mao's program, including the Cultural Revolution.

Fulbright Hearings: U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee hearings on Vietnam conducted between 1966 and 1971.

Simon Leys: Argued that the Cultural Revolution was not cultural or revolutionary, but an irrational, cruel power struggle replicating old despotism.

Little Red Book: A collection of statements from speeches and writings by Mao Zedong, published from 1964 to about... Continue reading "Key Figures and Events Shaping China-US Relations" »

Latin American Social Hierarchy

1. Peninsulares: People born in Spain. They were at the top of the social hierarchy.

The Revolutions in the Americas

Bonds That Create

Wilson's Fourteen Points

• Self-determination
• Isolation of Russia
• Revenge of France, because of the territories of Alsace and Saarland

The Crisis of 1929: Causes

The main causes of the 1929 crisis were:

• Inflation
• Speculation
• Overproduction

Great Depression: Development and Measures

In 1929, the era of prosperity was interrupted by a severe crisis that began with the crash of the New York Stock Exchange. Unable to collect the loans that had been granted, most banks went bankrupt, and those that survived the crisis drastically reduced the financing of firms.

Before long, industrial production declined drastically. Unemployment affected almost all social classes.

National Responses to the Great Depression

• United States: Proposed a shock plan to revive the economy,

The end of the cold war: