Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Anarchy: absence of government and absolute freedom of the individual, regarded as a political Ideal. Example: Free Territory, It existed from 1918 to 1921 in Russia and Ukraine.

Aristocracy: a form Of government in which power is held by the nobility. Example: no country has An aristocratic government.

Authoritarian: Avoring or enforcing strict obedience to authority, especially that of the Government, at the expense of personal freedom. Example: Argentina under Perón And Nasser in Egypt.

Communist: adhering To or based on the principles of communism. Example: Post-Soviet states: Armenia, Estonia.

Confederation: a more Or less permanent union of countries with some or most political power vested In a central authority. Example: Belgium, Canada.... Continue reading "Autonomous states come together to form a union called" »

The Progressive Biennium (1854–1856)

• The Progressive Liberals resorted to a military coup d'état to access power when the political system and the prestige of the monarchy weakened.
• New President of the Government: Espartero, with the help of the Unionist General O'Donnell.
• Confiscation and privatization of civil and communal assets (fostered by Minister of Economy, Madoz, in 1855).
• General Railway Law (1855).

The Final Years of Isabella II (1856–1868)

• Power was held alternately by the Moderates of Narváez and the Unionists of O'Donnell.

• Moderate Policies

  • Creation of an educational system (the Moyano Law), regulating primary education.
  • Colonialist foreign policy: campaigns in Morocco, Indochina, and Mexico.

• Growing Opposition

  • Growing opposition

Economic Growth and Social Transformation (1957-1960s)

The technocrats prevailed, and members of Opus Dei assumed significant posts in Franco's 1957 cabinet. Measures proposed by these technocrats were incorporated into the Stabilization Plan of 1959, which aimed to:

• Curb inflation.
• Reduce government economic controls.
• Bring Spanish economic policies and procedures in line with European standards.

The plan laid the basis for Spain's remarkable economic transformation in the 1960s. During that decade, Spain's industrial production and standard of living increased dramatically. The effects were profound. Foreign investment entered the country, attracted by low production costs and the absence of trade union freedom. The stabilizing measures established... Continue reading "Spain's Economic Miracle and the Decline of Francoism (1957–1975)" »

Ancien Regime

The Ancien Regime was a social and political system characterized by an absolute monarchy, a stratified society, and an economic system based on agrarian subsistence. Religion held significant influence during this period.

Louis XIV

King Louis XIV of France, a member of the Bourbon dynasty, was a staunch supporter of absolute monarchy. He centralized legislative, executive, and judicial powers under his rule.

The Enlightenment

The Enlightenment, an intellectual movement that emerged spontaneously in 18th-century France, championed several key ideas:

• Trust in reason
• Faith in progress
• Belief in the power of education
• Nature as a guide for morality
• Criticism of the Ancien Regime, particularly its lack of separation of powers

The movement spread... Continue reading "The Age of Enlightenment and Revolutions: A Historical Overview" »

The Holocaust

Exclusion (1933-1939)

The first measure was the exclusion of Jews from public life, preventing them from earning a living. Books written by Jews were burned. In 1935, Hitler introduced the Nuremberg Laws, which deprived Jews of their German citizenship and banned marriage between Germans and Jews.

Ghettoes (1939-1940)

These were closed-off city neighborhoods where all Jewish residents were required to live together. The main ghettos were in Poland.

Extermination (1941-1945)

Jews were killed in gas chambers and cremation ovens.

The Peace Settlement

Yalta and Potsdam Conferences (1945)

1) Yalta

• Germany would be divided into occupied zones.
• Stalin promised to hold free elections in Eastern Europe, although they never took place.
• The USSR would

Isabella II reigned between 1843 and 1868. Her reign meant the consolidation of Spain as a liberal State. She always preferred the moderates to rule and she called them to government in 1844.

MODERATE DECADE (1844-1854)

The moderates ruled for a decade. The strong man of this period was General Narváez. In this period a liberal conservative and centralized State consolidated, with the support of the aristocracy, the Church and the conservative bourgeoisie.

A new Constitution was written in 1845: sovereignty was shared between the monarch and the people and the State identified with Catholic religion. All the State, except from the Basque Provinces and Navarre, was submitted to the same laws. Tax collection was improved, a Criminal Code was approved... Continue reading "Isabella II: Reign, Politics, and Downfall" »

Key European Alliances (1879-1914)

• 1879 – Dual Alliance

  Germany and Austria-Hungary formed this alliance to protect themselves from Russia.

• 1882 – Triple Alliance

  Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed this alliance to prevent Italy from aligning with Russia.

• 1894 – Franco-Russian Alliance

  Russia and France allied to protect against Germany and Austria-Hungary.

• 1904 – The Entente Cordiale

  An agreement between Britain and France, recognizing colonial possessions and reducing tensions.

• 1907 – The Anglo-Russian Entente

  An agreement between Britain and Russia regarding spheres of influence in Asia.

• 1907 – The Triple Entente

  Formed by the previous agreements, uniting France, Britain, and Russia.

• 1914 – The Triple Entente Agreement

  Members agreed

The French Revolution's Aftermath

Reign of Terror

The wave of rumors and senseless panic that overcame France following the storming of the Bastille in 1789 led to the widespread destruction of manor houses and archives containing the feudal obligations of peasants.

The Napoleonic Wars

Napoleon Bonaparte

He overthrew the French Directory in 1799 and became Emperor of the French in 1804. He failed to defeat Great Britain and abdicated in 1814, returned to power briefly in 1815, but was defeated and died in exile.

Key Terms and Events

Coup d'état

Plebiscite

Concordat

An agreement between the Pope and Napoleon where Napoleon recognized Catholicism as the religion of the majority of France, and the Pope agreed not to ask for the return of any land seized... Continue reading "The Napoleonic Era and Latin American Revolutions" »

The Provisional Government (1868-1870)

After the deposition of Isabella II, the Progressive Party and the Liberal Union formed a Provisional Government (1868-1870).

Key Decisions

• Call elections to Constituent Cortes: these Cortes wrote the Constitution of 1869, a democratic Constitution, with a wide declaration of rights, universal male suffrage and a Parliamentary Monarchy.
• The peseta was declared the official currency.
• Search for a new king: the progressive General Prim was in charge of looking for a new king for the country. After several candidates, Amadeus of Savoy was chosen. He arrived in Spain at the end of 1870.

This democratic period allowed the arrival of propagandists of the International Workingmen’s Association, and the first anarchist... Continue reading "Spanish History: Provisional Government to Restoration" »