Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Geology

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The Earth's Crust: Three Types of Rocks

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The Earth's crust is made up of three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are formed when magma (molten rock) cools and solidifies. They can be classified into two main types: intrusive and extrusive.

  • Intrusive igneous rocks are formed when magma cools and solidifies slowly beneath the Earth's surface.
  • Extrusive igneous rocks are formed when magma cools and solidifies quickly on the Earth's surface.

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediments (pieces of other rocks, minerals, or organic matter) are compacted and cemented together.

  • Clastic sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation of broken pieces of other rocks.
  • Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed from the precipitation
... Continue reading "The Earth's Crust: Three Types of Rocks" »
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Time of useful consciousness

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3.5 billion years old
 embedded in rocks in western Australia: stromatolites(fosilized bacteria)                
Prokaryotes dominated from 3.5 to 2 billion years ago.
 During this time, the first divergence occurred:Bacteria and archeae
5.  First photosynthetic organisms around 3.5 billion years but Oxygen began accumulating in the atmosphere about 2.7 billion years ago. Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic prokaryotes that are still present today → produced oxygen. Sequestered carbon dioxide in organic molecules.
These bacteria changed the Earths atmosphere.
6.  The oldest eukaryotic fossils are ~2 billion years old.
 Symbiotic community of prokaryotes living within larger prokaryotes.
The first eukaryotic cells-theory of endosymbiotic


8.
... Continue reading "Time of useful consciousness" »
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The Big Bang, Galaxy Formation, and Star Evolution

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Write the schedule of the main big bang events.

Before the Big Bang, according to scientists, the vastness of the observable universe, including all its matter and radiation, was compressed into a hot, dense mass. This point experienced a violent expansion, origin of time, space and all groupings of matter. This almost incomprehensible estate has been speculated that existed just a reaction of the first second of time. Massive blast allowed all known matter and energy of the universe, including space and time, to arise from some type of unknown energy. As the universe expands over time, the size increases, but temperature decreases and its density too. As time passed the material were getting cooler and began to form diverse types of atoms,
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the hydrosphere

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1. PRECIPITATION. After cloud has formed, water returns to the Earth’s surface as either liquid rain or

solid snow and hail.
2. TRANSPIRATION. This occurs when plants lose water due to evaporation caused by heat from the
Sun. The water from this process also becomes part of the atmosphere.
3. CONDENSATION. Through this process the water vapour produced by evaporation and
transpiration rises, cools down, and then turns into clouds.
4. EVAPORATION. This process involves the Sun heating surface water: the water evaporates, turning
into water vapour, which then becomes part of the atmosphere.
5. SURFACE RUNOFF. When liquid water is on the surface of the Earth it flows across the land. This
water forms rivers that eventually return the water to the seas
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Understanding Our Ecosystem

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Conditions for Life

Several key factors make life on Earth possible:

  • Water
  • A magnetic field
  • A protective atmosphere
  • Carbon compounds
  • An energy source

Biotic and Abiotic Factors

Biotope: The non-living part of an environment, including all abiotic factors.

Biocenosis: All living things from every species within a defined area that provides the necessities for survival.

Ecosystem: A natural environment where living things interact with each other and their surroundings.

Trophic Levels

Ecosystems often have distinct trophic levels:

  • Tertiary consumers
  • Secondary consumers
  • Primary consumers
  • Producers

Predation

Predation is an interspecific relationship where one living thing kills another for food.

Soil Composition

Topsoil: Composed of partially decomposed organic matter... Continue reading "Understanding Our Ecosystem" »

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Principles of Flight

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properties of open channel

        The flow is under gravity.
q
q        There will be a free surface for the Flow open to  atmosphere
q         The position of the free surface can Change in space and time

•There are three General principles used in solving problems of flow in open channels:
–Continuity (conservation of mass)
–Energy
–
•For problems Involving steady uniform flow, continuity and energy principles are sufficient

roughness depends on:
•Roughness Coefficient (n) is a function of:
•
–Channel material
–Surface irregularities
–Variation in shape
–Vegetation
–Flow conditions
–Channel obstructions
–Degree of meandering
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A climb gradient required is 3,3%.

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Cliff erosion is a continuing process. Wave refraction causes eroding energy to rap around jutting headlands, narrowing them and eventually creating Tombolos and eventually offshore islands.


1. Build 5 or more meters above normal hightide.

2. Build in a spot with numerous high dunes between the proposed building and water.

3. Determine the rate of coastline erosion in the immediate vicinity.


1. Reduction of slope angle

2. Terracing

3. Placement of additional supporting material at the base of the slope.

4. Removal of soil, rock, or artificial structures high on the slope to reduce the mass.


1. Doors or windows stack or jam for the first time.

2. New cracks appear in plaster, tile, brick or foundations.

3. Outside walls, walks, or stairs begin to pull... Continue reading "A climb gradient required is 3,3%." »

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Climograma and Pollution: Environmental Impact in Spain

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Climograma

Un Climograma é un gráfico no que representamos simultaneamente os valores da temperatura media mensual, mediante unha liña, e os de precipitación media mensual, mediante barras verticais, dos doce meses do ano. No eixe vertical esquerdo situaremos as frecuencias de temperatura en oC (Graos Centígrados), tendo en conta se hai temperaturas inferiores a 0oC, pois nese caso haberá que deixar un espazo para representalas. As temperaturas medias mensuais están unidas por unha liña vermella 1.No eixe vertical dereito representaremos as precipitacións (en mm), tendo en conta as proporcións que debemos utilizar en función do total, sabendo que será necesario indicar o dobre do valor empregado no eixe vertical esquerdo. A diferenza... Continue reading "Climograma and Pollution: Environmental Impact in Spain" »

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The earth is divided like a puzzle a series of compartments called rigid lithospheric plates.

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core-wietcher-lehmen        continental drift-Arthur-Wegner

Paleomagnetism

-Age of the seaved

-conclussion: 1)The earth's magnetic field has inverted his polarity many times throught the planet's history.

                    2) The only explanation for the symmetrical distribution of the paleomagnetic bands was that the seabed must have expanded fon the axis                              of the ridge.

-In the seabed there is ridges and volcanos

-In the middle of the ocean there are volcanos that erupt new material produced in the mantle, this produce the expansion to the sides at the old ocean crust.                                                                               

... Continue reading "The earth is divided like a puzzle a series of compartments called rigid lithospheric plates." »

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Oceanographic chacao channel

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Continental drift theory:(the movem of continents)(Wegener 1912) according to this theory the continents made of a lighter crust slid over a continuous thicker layer.Evidences:-Palaeolithic evidence:Identical fossils of land-based organisms such as reptiles were found in continents situated far apart,these organis. Could never have crossed the oceans that now separate them.-Geological evid.:Continents fit together along their coastlines&continental shelves,rocks of the same age and structure appear on each side of the line where they were joined.-Paleoclimatic evid:continents which were situated in the south pole pf Pangaea have glacial moraines from the same age.The ocean 4.1The ocean floor:the oceanographic survey ships conducted research
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